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Glass substrate with ITO electrodes. The shapes of these electrodes will determine the shapes that will appear when the LCD is switched ON. Vertical ridges etched on the surface are smooth.

A liquid-crystal display (LCD) is a flat-panel display or other electronically modulated optical device that uses the light-modulating properties of liquid crystals combined with polarizers. Liquid crystals do not emit light directlybacklight or reflector to produce images in color or monochrome.seven-segment displays, as in a digital clock, are all good examples of devices with these displays. They use the same basic technology, except that arbitrary images are made from a matrix of small pixels, while other displays have larger elements. LCDs can either be normally on (positive) or off (negative), depending on the polarizer arrangement. For example, a character positive LCD with a backlight will have black lettering on a background that is the color of the backlight, and a character negative LCD will have a black background with the letters being of the same color as the backlight. Optical filters are added to white on blue LCDs to give them their characteristic appearance.

LCDs are used in a wide range of applications, including LCD televisions, computer monitors, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays, and indoor and outdoor signage. Small LCD screens are common in LCD projectors and portable consumer devices such as digital cameras, watches, calculators, and mobile telephones, including smartphones. LCD screens have replaced heavy, bulky and less energy-efficient cathode-ray tube (CRT) displays in nearly all applications. The phosphors used in CRTs make them vulnerable to image burn-in when a static image is displayed on a screen for a long time, e.g., the table frame for an airline flight schedule on an indoor sign. LCDs do not have this weakness, but are still susceptible to image persistence.

Each pixel of an LCD typically consists of a layer of molecules aligned between two transparent electrodes, often made of Indium-Tin oxide (ITO) and two polarizing filters (parallel and perpendicular polarizers), the axes of transmission of which are (in most of the cases) perpendicular to each other. Without the liquid crystal between the polarizing filters, light passing through the first filter would be blocked by the second (crossed) polarizer. Before an electric field is applied, the orientation of the liquid-crystal molecules is determined by the alignment at the surfaces of electrodes. In a twisted nematic (TN) device, the surface alignment directions at the two electrodes are perpendicular to each other, and so the molecules arrange themselves in a helical structure, or twist. This induces the rotation of the polarization of the incident light, and the device appears gray. If the applied voltage is large enough, the liquid crystal molecules in the center of the layer are almost completely untwisted and the polarization of the incident light is not rotated as it passes through the liquid crystal layer. This light will then be mainly polarized perpendicular to the second filter, and thus be blocked and the pixel will appear black. By controlling the voltage applied across the liquid crystal layer in each pixel, light can be allowed to pass through in varying amounts thus constituting different levels of gray.

The chemical formula of the liquid crystals used in LCDs may vary. Formulas may be patented.Sharp Corporation. The patent that covered that specific mixture expired.

Most color LCD systems use the same technique, with color filters used to generate red, green, and blue subpixels. The LCD color filters are made with a photolithography process on large glass sheets that are later glued with other glass sheets containing a TFT array, spacers and liquid crystal, creating several color LCDs that are then cut from one another and laminated with polarizer sheets. Red, green, blue and black photoresists (resists) are used. All resists contain a finely ground powdered pigment, with particles being just 40 nanometers across. The black resist is the first to be applied; this will create a black grid (known in the industry as a black matrix) that will separate red, green and blue subpixels from one another, increasing contrast ratios and preventing light from leaking from one subpixel onto other surrounding subpixels.Super-twisted nematic LCD, where the variable twist between tighter-spaced plates causes a varying double refraction birefringence, thus changing the hue.

LCD in a Texas Instruments calculator with top polarizer removed from device and placed on top, such that the top and bottom polarizers are perpendicular. As a result, the colors are inverted.

The optical effect of a TN device in the voltage-on state is far less dependent on variations in the device thickness than that in the voltage-off state. Because of this, TN displays with low information content and no backlighting are usually operated between crossed polarizers such that they appear bright with no voltage (the eye is much more sensitive to variations in the dark state than the bright state). As most of 2010-era LCDs are used in television sets, monitors and smartphones, they have high-resolution matrix arrays of pixels to display arbitrary images using backlighting with a dark background. When no image is displayed, different arrangements are used. For this purpose, TN LCDs are operated between parallel polarizers, whereas IPS LCDs feature crossed polarizers. In many applications IPS LCDs have replaced TN LCDs, particularly in smartphones. Both the liquid crystal material and the alignment layer material contain ionic compounds. If an electric field of one particular polarity is applied for a long period of time, this ionic material is attracted to the surfaces and degrades the device performance. This is avoided either by applying an alternating current or by reversing the polarity of the electric field as the device is addressed (the response of the liquid crystal layer is identical, regardless of the polarity of the applied field).

Displays for a small number of individual digits or fixed symbols (as in digital watches and pocket calculators) can be implemented with independent electrodes for each segment.alphanumeric or variable graphics displays are usually implemented with pixels arranged as a matrix consisting of electrically connected rows on one side of the LC layer and columns on the other side, which makes it possible to address each pixel at the intersections. The general method of matrix addressing consists of sequentially addressing one side of the matrix, for example by selecting the rows one-by-one and applying the picture information on the other side at the columns row-by-row. For details on the various matrix addressing schemes see passive-matrix and active-matrix addressed LCDs.

LCDs are manufactured in cleanrooms borrowing techniques from semiconductor manufacturing and using large sheets of glass whose size has increased over time. Several displays are manufactured at the same time, and then cut from the sheet of glass, also known as the mother glass or LCD glass substrate. The increase in size allows more displays or larger displays to be made, just like with increasing wafer sizes in semiconductor manufacturing. The glass sizes are as follows:

Until Gen 8, manufacturers would not agree on a single mother glass size and as a result, different manufacturers would use slightly different glass sizes for the same generation. Some manufacturers have adopted Gen 8.6 mother glass sheets which are only slightly larger than Gen 8.5, allowing for more 50 and 58 inch LCDs to be made per mother glass, specially 58 inch LCDs, in which case 6 can be produced on a Gen 8.6 mother glass vs only 3 on a Gen 8.5 mother glass, significantly reducing waste.AGC Inc., Corning Inc., and Nippon Electric Glass.

In 1922, Georges Friedel described the structure and properties of liquid crystals and classified them in three types (nematics, smectics and cholesterics). In 1927, Vsevolod Frederiks devised the electrically switched light valve, called the Fréedericksz transition, the essential effect of all LCD technology. In 1936, the Marconi Wireless Telegraph company patented the first practical application of the technology, "The Liquid Crystal Light Valve". In 1962, the first major English language publication Molecular Structure and Properties of Liquid Crystals was published by Dr. George W. Gray.RCA found that liquid crystals had some interesting electro-optic characteristics and he realized an electro-optical effect by generating stripe-patterns in a thin layer of liquid crystal material by the application of a voltage. This effect is based on an electro-hydrodynamic instability forming what are now called "Williams domains" inside the liquid crystal.

In the late 1960s, pioneering work on liquid crystals was undertaken by the UK"s Royal Radar Establishment at Malvern, England. The team at RRE supported ongoing work by George William Gray and his team at the University of Hull who ultimately discovered the cyanobiphenyl liquid crystals, which had correct stability and temperature properties for application in LCDs.

The idea of a TFT-based liquid-crystal display (LCD) was conceived by Bernard Lechner of RCA Laboratories in 1968.dynamic scattering mode (DSM) LCD that used standard discrete MOSFETs.

On December 4, 1970, the twisted nematic field effect (TN) in liquid crystals was filed for patent by Hoffmann-LaRoche in Switzerland, (Swiss patent No. 532 261) with Wolfgang Helfrich and Martin Schadt (then working for the Central Research Laboratories) listed as inventors.Brown, Boveri & Cie, its joint venture partner at that time, which produced TN displays for wristwatches and other applications during the 1970s for the international markets including the Japanese electronics industry, which soon produced the first digital quartz wristwatches with TN-LCDs and numerous other products. James Fergason, while working with Sardari Arora and Alfred Saupe at Kent State University Liquid Crystal Institute, filed an identical patent in the United States on April 22, 1971.ILIXCO (now LXD Incorporated), produced LCDs based on the TN-effect, which soon superseded the poor-quality DSM types due to improvements of lower operating voltages and lower power consumption. Tetsuro Hama and Izuhiko Nishimura of Seiko received a US patent dated February 1971, for an electronic wristwatch incorporating a TN-LCD.

In 1972, the concept of the active-matrix thin-film transistor (TFT) liquid-crystal display panel was prototyped in the United States by T. Peter Brody"s team at Westinghouse, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.Westinghouse Research Laboratories demonstrated the first thin-film-transistor liquid-crystal display (TFT LCD).high-resolution and high-quality electronic visual display devices use TFT-based active matrix displays.active-matrix liquid-crystal display (AM LCD) in 1974, and then Brody coined the term "active matrix" in 1975.

In 1972 North American Rockwell Microelectronics Corp introduced the use of DSM LCDs for calculators for marketing by Lloyds Electronics Inc, though these required an internal light source for illumination.Sharp Corporation followed with DSM LCDs for pocket-sized calculators in 1973Seiko and its first 6-digit TN-LCD quartz wristwatch, and Casio"s "Casiotron". Color LCDs based on Guest-Host interaction were invented by a team at RCA in 1968.TFT LCDs similar to the prototypes developed by a Westinghouse team in 1972 were patented in 1976 by a team at Sharp consisting of Fumiaki Funada, Masataka Matsuura, and Tomio Wada,

In 1983, researchers at Brown, Boveri & Cie (BBC) Research Center, Switzerland, invented the passive matrix-addressed LCDs. H. Amstutz et al. were listed as inventors in the corresponding patent applications filed in Switzerland on July 7, 1983, and October 28, 1983. Patents were granted in Switzerland CH 665491, Europe EP 0131216,

The first color LCD televisions were developed as handheld televisions in Japan. In 1980, Hattori Seiko"s R&D group began development on color LCD pocket televisions.Seiko Epson released the first LCD television, the Epson TV Watch, a wristwatch equipped with a small active-matrix LCD television.dot matrix TN-LCD in 1983.Citizen Watch,TFT LCD.computer monitors and LCD televisions.3LCD projection technology in the 1980s, and licensed it for use in projectors in 1988.compact, full-color LCD projector.

In 1990, under different titles, inventors conceived electro optical effects as alternatives to twisted nematic field effect LCDs (TN- and STN- LCDs). One approach was to use interdigital electrodes on one glass substrate only to produce an electric field essentially parallel to the glass substrates.Germany by Guenter Baur et al. and patented in various countries.Hitachi work out various practical details of the IPS technology to interconnect the thin-film transistor array as a matrix and to avoid undesirable stray fields in between pixels.

Hitachi also improved the viewing angle dependence further by optimizing the shape of the electrodes (Super IPS). NEC and Hitachi become early manufacturers of active-matrix addressed LCDs based on the IPS technology. This is a milestone for implementing large-screen LCDs having acceptable visual performance for flat-panel computer monitors and television screens. In 1996, Samsung developed the optical patterning technique that enables multi-domain LCD. Multi-domain and In Plane Switching subsequently remain the dominant LCD designs through 2006.South Korea and Taiwan,

In 2007 the image quality of LCD televisions surpassed the image quality of cathode-ray-tube-based (CRT) TVs.LCD TVs were projected to account 50% of the 200 million TVs to be shipped globally in 2006, according to Displaybank.Toshiba announced 2560 × 1600 pixels on a 6.1-inch (155 mm) LCD panel, suitable for use in a tablet computer,

In 2016, Panasonic developed IPS LCDs with a contrast ratio of 1,000,000:1, rivaling OLEDs. This technology was later put into mass production as dual layer, dual panel or LMCL (Light Modulating Cell Layer) LCDs. The technology uses 2 liquid crystal layers instead of one, and may be used along with a mini-LED backlight and quantum dot sheets.

Since LCDs produce no light of their own, they require external light to produce a visible image.backlight. Active-matrix LCDs are almost always backlit.Transflective LCDs combine the features of a backlit transmissive display and a reflective display.

CCFL: The LCD panel is lit either by two cold cathode fluorescent lamps placed at opposite edges of the display or an array of parallel CCFLs behind larger displays. A diffuser (made of PMMA acrylic plastic, also known as a wave or light guide/guiding plateinverter to convert whatever DC voltage the device uses (usually 5 or 12 V) to ≈1000 V needed to light a CCFL.

EL-WLED: The LCD panel is lit by a row of white LEDs placed at one or more edges of the screen. A light diffuser (light guide plate, LGP) is then used to spread the light evenly across the whole display, similarly to edge-lit CCFL LCD backlights. The diffuser is made out of either PMMA plastic or special glass, PMMA is used in most cases because it is rugged, while special glass is used when the thickness of the LCD is of primary concern, because it doesn"t expand as much when heated or exposed to moisture, which allows LCDs to be just 5mm thick. Quantum dots may be placed on top of the diffuser as a quantum dot enhancement film (QDEF, in which case they need a layer to be protected from heat and humidity) or on the color filter of the LCD, replacing the resists that are normally used.

WLED array: The LCD panel is lit by a full array of white LEDs placed behind a diffuser behind the panel. LCDs that use this implementation will usually have the ability to dim or completely turn off the LEDs in the dark areas of the image being displayed, effectively increasing the contrast ratio of the display. The precision with which this can be done will depend on the number of dimming zones of the display. The more dimming zones, the more precise the dimming, with less obvious blooming artifacts which are visible as dark grey patches surrounded by the unlit areas of the LCD. As of 2012, this design gets most of its use from upscale, larger-screen LCD televisions.

RGB-LED array: Similar to the WLED array, except the panel is lit by a full array of RGB LEDs. While displays lit with white LEDs usually have a poorer color gamut than CCFL lit displays, panels lit with RGB LEDs have very wide color gamuts. This implementation is most popular on professional graphics editing LCDs. As of 2012, LCDs in this category usually cost more than $1000. As of 2016 the cost of this category has drastically reduced and such LCD televisions obtained same price levels as the former 28" (71 cm) CRT based categories.

Monochrome LEDs: such as red, green, yellow or blue LEDs are used in the small passive monochrome LCDs typically used in clocks, watches and small appliances.

Today, most LCD screens are being designed with an LED backlight instead of the traditional CCFL backlight, while that backlight is dynamically controlled with the video information (dynamic backlight control). The combination with the dynamic backlight control, invented by Philips researchers Douglas Stanton, Martinus Stroomer and Adrianus de Vaan, simultaneously increases the dynamic range of the display system (also marketed as HDR, high dynamic range television or FLAD, full-area local area dimming).

The LCD backlight systems are made highly efficient by applying optical films such as prismatic structure (prism sheet) to gain the light into the desired viewer directions and reflective polarizing films that recycle the polarized light that was formerly absorbed by the first polarizer of the LCD (invented by Philips researchers Adrianus de Vaan and Paulus Schaareman),

A pink elastomeric connector mating an LCD panel to circuit board traces, shown next to a centimeter-scale ruler. The conductive and insulating layers in the black stripe are very small.

A standard television receiver screen, a modern LCD panel, has over six million pixels, and they are all individually powered by a wire network embedded in the screen. The fine wires, or pathways, form a grid with vertical wires across the whole screen on one side of the screen and horizontal wires across the whole screen on the other side of the screen. To this grid each pixel has a positive connection on one side and a negative connection on the other side. So the total amount of wires needed for a 1080p display is 3 x 1920 going vertically and 1080 going horizontally for a total of 6840 wires horizontally and vertically. That"s three for red, green and blue and 1920 columns of pixels for each color for a total of 5760 wires going vertically and 1080 rows of wires going horizontally. For a panel that is 28.8 inches (73 centimeters) wide, that means a wire density of 200 wires per inch along the horizontal edge.

The LCD panel is powered by LCD drivers that are carefully matched up with the edge of the LCD panel at the factory level. The drivers may be installed using several methods, the most common of which are COG (Chip-On-Glass) and TAB (Tape-automated bonding) These same principles apply also for smartphone screens that are much smaller than TV screens.anisotropic conductive film or, for lower densities, elastomeric connectors.

Monochrome and later color passive-matrix LCDs were standard in most early laptops (although a few used plasma displaysGame Boyactive-matrix became standard on all laptops. The commercially unsuccessful Macintosh Portable (released in 1989) was one of the first to use an active-matrix display (though still monochrome). Passive-matrix LCDs are still used in the 2010s for applications less demanding than laptop computers and TVs, such as inexpensive calculators. In particular, these are used on portable devices where less information content needs to be displayed, lowest power consumption (no backlight) and low cost are desired or readability in direct sunlight is needed.

A comparison between a blank passive-matrix display (top) and a blank active-matrix display (bottom). A passive-matrix display can be identified when the blank background is more grey in appearance than the crisper active-matrix display, fog appears on all edges of the screen, and while pictures appear to be fading on the screen.

STN LCDs have to be continuously refreshed by alternating pulsed voltages of one polarity during one frame and pulses of opposite polarity during the next frame. Individual pixels are addressed by the corresponding row and column circuits. This type of display is called response times and poor contrast are typical of passive-matrix addressed LCDs with too many pixels and driven according to the "Alt & Pleshko" drive scheme. Welzen and de Vaan also invented a non RMS drive scheme enabling to drive STN displays with video rates and enabling to show smooth moving video images on an STN display.

Bistable LCDs do not require continuous refreshing. Rewriting is only required for picture information changes. In 1984 HA van Sprang and AJSM de Vaan invented an STN type display that could be operated in a bistable mode, enabling extremely high resolution images up to 4000 lines or more using only low voltages.

High-resolution color displays, such as modern LCD computer monitors and televisions, use an active-matrix structure. A matrix of thin-film transistors (TFTs) is added to the electrodes in contact with the LC layer. Each pixel has its own dedicated transistor, allowing each column line to access one pixel. When a row line is selected, all of the column lines are connected to a row of pixels and voltages corresponding to the picture information are driven onto all of the column lines. The row line is then deactivated and the next row line is selected. All of the row lines are selected in sequence during a refresh operation. Active-matrix addressed displays look brighter and sharper than passive-matrix addressed displays of the same size, and generally have quicker response times, producing much better images. Sharp produces bistable reflective LCDs with a 1-bit SRAM cell per pixel that only requires small amounts of power to maintain an image.

Segment LCDs can also have color by using Field Sequential Color (FSC LCD). This kind of displays have a high speed passive segment LCD panel with an RGB backlight. The backlight quickly changes color, making it appear white to the naked eye. The LCD panel is synchronized with the backlight. For example, to make a segment appear red, the segment is only turned ON when the backlight is red, and to make a segment appear magenta, the segment is turned ON when the backlight is blue, and it continues to be ON while the backlight becomes red, and it turns OFF when the backlight becomes green. To make a segment appear black, the segment is always turned ON. An FSC LCD divides a color image into 3 images (one Red, one Green and one Blue) and it displays them in order. Due to persistence of vision, the 3 monochromatic images appear as one color image. An FSC LCD needs an LCD panel with a refresh rate of 180 Hz, and the response time is reduced to just 5 milliseconds when compared with normal STN LCD panels which have a response time of 16 milliseconds.

Samsung introduced UFB (Ultra Fine & Bright) displays back in 2002, utilized the super-birefringent effect. It has the luminance, color gamut, and most of the contrast of a TFT-LCD, but only consumes as much power as an STN display, according to Samsung. It was being used in a variety of Samsung cellular-telephone models produced until late 2006, when Samsung stopped producing UFB displays. UFB displays were also used in certain models of LG mobile phones.

In-plane switching is an LCD technology that aligns the liquid crystals in a plane parallel to the glass substrates. In this method, the electrical field is applied through opposite electrodes on the same glass substrate, so that the liquid crystals can be reoriented (switched) essentially in the same plane, although fringe fields inhibit a homogeneous reorientation. This requires two transistors for each pixel instead of the single transistor needed for a standard thin-film transistor (TFT) display. The IPS technology is used in everything from televisions, computer monitors, and even wearable devices, especially almost all LCD smartphone panels are IPS/FFS mode. IPS displays belong to the LCD panel family screen types. The other two types are VA and TN. Before LG Enhanced IPS was introduced in 2001 by Hitachi as 17" monitor in Market, the additional transistors resulted in blocking more transmission area, thus requiring a brighter backlight and consuming more power, making this type of display less desirable for notebook computers. Panasonic Himeji G8.5 was using an enhanced version of IPS, also LGD in Korea, then currently the world biggest LCD panel manufacture BOE in China is also IPS/FFS mode TV panel.

In 2011, LG claimed the smartphone LG Optimus Black (IPS LCD (LCD NOVA)) has the brightness up to 700 nits, while the competitor has only IPS LCD with 518 nits and double an active-matrix OLED (AMOLED) display with 305 nits. LG also claimed the NOVA display to be 50 percent more efficient than regular LCDs and to consume only 50 percent of the power of AMOLED displays when producing white on screen.

This pixel-layout is found in S-IPS LCDs. A chevron shape is used to widen the viewing cone (range of viewing directions with good contrast and low color shift).

Vertical-alignment displays are a form of LCDs in which the liquid crystals naturally align vertically to the glass substrates. When no voltage is applied, the liquid crystals remain perpendicular to the substrate, creating a black display between crossed polarizers. When voltage is applied, the liquid crystals shift to a tilted position, allowing light to pass through and create a gray-scale display depending on the amount of tilt generated by the electric field. It has a deeper-black background, a higher contrast ratio, a wider viewing angle, and better image quality at extreme temperatures than traditional twisted-nematic displays.

Blue phase mode LCDs have been shown as engineering samples early in 2008, but they are not in mass-production. The physics of blue phase mode LCDs suggest that very short switching times (≈1 ms) can be achieved, so time sequential color control can possibly be realized and expensive color filters would be obsolete.

Some LCD panels have defective transistors, causing permanently lit or unlit pixels which are commonly referred to as stuck pixels or dead pixels respectively. Unlike integrated circuits (ICs), LCD panels with a few defective transistors are usually still usable. Manufacturers" policies for the acceptable number of defective pixels vary greatly. At one point, Samsung held a zero-tolerance policy for LCD monitors sold in Korea.ISO 13406-2 standard.

Dead pixel policies are often hotly debated between manufacturers and customers. To regulate the acceptability of defects and to protect the end user, ISO released the ISO 13406-2 standard,ISO 9241, specifically ISO-9241-302, 303, 305, 307:2008 pixel defects. However, not every LCD manufacturer conforms to the ISO standard and the ISO standard is quite often interpreted in different ways. LCD panels are more likely to have defects than most ICs due to their larger size. For example, a 300 mm SVGA LCD has 8 defects and a 150 mm wafer has only 3 defects. However, 134 of the 137 dies on the wafer will be acceptable, whereas rejection of the whole LCD panel would be a 0% yield. In recent years, quality control has been improved. An SVGA LCD panel with 4 defective pixels is usually considered defective and customers can request an exchange for a new one.

Some manufacturers, notably in South Korea where some of the largest LCD panel manufacturers, such as LG, are located, now have a zero-defective-pixel guarantee, which is an extra screening process which can then determine "A"- and "B"-grade panels.clouding (or less commonly mura), which describes the uneven patches of changes in luminance. It is most visible in dark or black areas of displayed scenes.

The zenithal bistable device (ZBD), developed by Qinetiq (formerly DERA), can retain an image without power. The crystals may exist in one of two stable orientations ("black" and "white") and power is only required to change the image. ZBD Displays is a spin-off company from QinetiQ who manufactured both grayscale and color ZBD devices. Kent Displays has also developed a "no-power" display that uses polymer stabilized cholesteric liquid crystal (ChLCD). In 2009 Kent demonstrated the use of a ChLCD to cover the entire surface of a mobile phone, allowing it to change colors, and keep that color even when power is removed.

In 2004, researchers at the University of Oxford demonstrated two new types of zero-power bistable LCDs based on Zenithal bistable techniques.e.g., BiNem technology, are based mainly on the surface properties and need specific weak anchoring materials.

Resolution The resolution of an LCD is expressed by the number of columns and rows of pixels (e.g., 1024×768). Each pixel is usually composed 3 sub-pixels, a red, a green, and a blue one. This had been one of the few features of LCD performance that remained uniform among different designs. However, there are newer designs that share sub-pixels among pixels and add Quattron which attempt to efficiently increase the perceived resolution of a display without increasing the actual resolution, to mixed results.

Spatial performance: For a computer monitor or some other display that is being viewed from a very close distance, resolution is often expressed in terms of dot pitch or pixels per inch, which is consistent with the printing industry. Display density varies per application, with televisions generally having a low density for long-distance viewing and portable devices having a high density for close-range detail. The Viewing Angle of an LCD may be important depending on the display and its usage, the limitations of certain display technologies mean the display only displays accurately at certain angles.

Temporal performance: the temporal resolution of an LCD is how well it can display changing images, or the accuracy and the number of times per second the display draws the data it is being given. LCD pixels do not flash on/off between frames, so LCD monitors exhibit no refresh-induced flicker no matter how low the refresh rate.

Color performance: There are multiple terms to describe different aspects of color performance of a display. Color gamut is the range of colors that can be displayed, and color depth, which is the fineness with which the color range is divided. Color gamut is a relatively straight forward feature, but it is rarely discussed in marketing materials except at the professional level. Having a color range that exceeds the content being shown on the screen has no benefits, so displays are only made to perform within or below the range of a certain specification.white point and gamma correction, which describe what color white is and how the other colors are displayed relative to white.

Brightness and contrast ratio: Contrast ratio is the ratio of the brightness of a full-on pixel to a full-off pixel. The LCD itself is only a light valve and does not generate light; the light comes from a backlight that is either fluorescent or a set of LEDs. Brightness is usually stated as the maximum light output of the LCD, which can vary greatly based on the transparency of the LCD and the brightness of the backlight. Brighter backlight allows stronger contrast and higher dynamic range (HDR displays are graded in peak luminance), but there is always a trade-off between brightness and power consumption.

Usually no refresh-rate flicker, because the LCD pixels hold their state between refreshes (which are usually done at 200 Hz or faster, regardless of the input refresh rate).

No theoretical resolution limit. When multiple LCD panels are used together to create a single canvas, each additional panel increases the total resolution of the display, which is commonly called stacked resolution.

LCDs can be made transparent and flexible, but they cannot emit light without a backlight like OLED and microLED, which are other technologies that can also be made flexible and transparent.

As an inherently digital device, the LCD can natively display digital data from a DVI or HDMI connection without requiring conversion to analog. Some LCD panels have native fiber optic inputs in addition to DVI and HDMI.

Limited viewing angle in some older or cheaper monitors, causing color, saturation, contrast and brightness to vary with user position, even within the intended viewing angle. Special films can be used to increase the viewing angles of LCDs.

As of 2012, most implementations of LCD backlighting use pulse-width modulation (PWM) to dim the display,CRT monitor at 85 Hz refresh rate would (this is because the entire screen is strobing on and off rather than a CRT"s phosphor sustained dot which continually scans across the display, leaving some part of the display always lit), causing severe eye-strain for some people.LED-backlit monitors, because the LEDs switch on and off faster than a CCFL lamp.

Only one native resolution. Displaying any other resolution either requires a video scaler, causing blurriness and jagged edges, or running the display at native resolution using 1:1 pixel mapping, causing the image either not to fill the screen (letterboxed display), or to run off the lower or right edges of the screen.

Fixed bit depth (also called color depth). Many cheaper LCDs are only able to display 262144 (218) colors. 8-bit S-IPS panels can display 16 million (224) colors and have significantly better black level, but are expensive and have slower response time.

Input lag, because the LCD"s A/D converter waits for each frame to be completely been output before drawing it to the LCD panel. Many LCD monitors do post-processing before displaying the image in an attempt to compensate for poor color fidelity, which adds an additional lag. Further, a video scaler must be used when displaying non-native resolutions, which adds yet more time lag. Scaling and post processing are usually done in a single chip on modern monitors, but each function that chip performs adds some delay. Some displays have a video gaming mode which disables all or most processing to reduce perceivable input lag.

Dead or stuck pixels may occur during manufacturing or after a period of use. A stuck pixel will glow with color even on an all-black screen, while a dead one will always remain black.

In a constant-on situation, thermalization may occur in case of bad thermal management, in which part of the screen has overheated and looks discolored compared to the rest of the screen.

Loss of brightness and much slower response times in low temperature environments. In sub-zero environments, LCD screens may cease to function without the use of supplemental heating.

The production of LCD screens uses nitrogen trifluoride (NF3) as an etching fluid during the production of the thin-film components. NF3 is a potent greenhouse gas, and its relatively long half-life may make it a potentially harmful contributor to global warming. A report in Geophysical Research Letters suggested that its effects were theoretically much greater than better-known sources of greenhouse gasses like carbon dioxide. As NF3 was not in widespread use at the time, it was not made part of the Kyoto Protocols and has been deemed "the missing greenhouse gas".

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Digital cameras introduced a lot of great features to the world of photography, including the ability to look at a photo that you just shot to ensure that it looks right before you move on to another scene. If someone had his eyes closed or if the composition doesn"t look quite right, you can reshoot the image. The key to this feature is the display screen. Continue reading to understand what"s an LCD.

LCD, or Liquid Crystal Display, is the display technology used to create the screens embedded in the back of nearly all digital cameras. In a digital camera, the LCD works for reviewing photos, displaying menu options and serving as a live viewfinder.

All digital cameras contain full-color display screens. In fact, the display screen has become the preferred method of framing the scene, as only a small number of digital cameras now include a separate viewfinder and are mostly for higher-end cameras. Of course, with film cameras, all cameras had to have a viewfinder to allow you to frame the scene.

LCD screen sharpness depends on the number of pixels the LCD can display, and the camera"s specifications should list this number. A display screen that has more pixels of resolution should be sharper than one with fewer pixels.

Even though some cameras may have a display screen that uses a different display technology than LCD, the term LCD has become almost synonymous with display screens on cameras.

Additionally, some other popular cameras can make use of a touchscreen display or of an articulated display, where the screen can twist and swivel away from the camera body.

A liquid crystal display makes use of a layer of molecules (the liquid crystal substance) that are placed between two transparent electrodes. As the screen applies an electrical charge to the electrodes, the liquid crystal molecules change alignment. The amount of electrical charge determines the different colors that appear on the LCD.

The display screen consists of millions of pixels, and each individual pixel will contain a different color. You can think of these pixels as individual dots. As the dots are placed next to each other and aligned, the combination of the pixels forms the picture on the screen.

A full HDTV (FHD) has a resolution of 1920x1080, which results in a total of about 2 million pixels. Each of these individual pixels must be changed dozens of times every second to display a moving object on the screen properly. Understanding how the LCD screen works will help you appreciate the complexity of the technology used to create the display on the screen.

With a camera display screen, the number of pixels ranges from about 400,000 to maybe 1 million or more. So the camera display screen doesn"t quite offer FHD resolution. However, when you consider a camera screen usually is between 3 and 4 inches (measured diagonally from one corner to the opposite corner). In contrast, a TV screen is generally between 32 and 75 inches (again measured diagonally), you can see why the camera display looks so sharp. You"re squeezing about half as many pixels into a space that is several times smaller than the TV screen.

LCDs have become a commonplace display technology over the years. LCDs appear in most digital photo frames. The LCD screen sits inside the frame and displays the digital photos. LCD technology also appears in large screen televisions, laptop screens, and smartphone screens, among other devices.

LCD, or Liquid Crystal Display is a type of thin, flat display screen; these began to appear in some film cameras to display settings in the 1980s. They are now ubiquitous in digital cameras, to display images, menus and settings. On many digital cameras that have them, LCD displays may be the only form of viewfinder provided. Early digital SLRs were only able to review captured images on their rear LCD panels, but used a reflex finder for composing images. As of 2011, "live view" LCD displays are increasingly used on more advanced digital cameras and (as in the case of EVFs) may eventually displace optical viewfinders entirely.

LCDs may be made as full color pixel-oriented arrays, capable of showing full photo images as described above, or as fixed-format modules, only able to display only pre-defined monochrome symbols or numerals. It is the second type which can be found on early low-resolution consumer digicams, or as frame counter and function control displays on film cameras which use electronic controls.

The Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) technology uses light emitting crystals to display images. The crystals are regulated by a computer and are able to show various light colours, and intensities as required. This modulation allows an array of such crystals to form a display. Most modern DSLR cameras use LCD screens to display the images taken by the camera. LCD screens on cameras are in ‘True’ colour (True colour = 16,777,216 colours).

DSLRs, bridge cameras, point-and-shoot cameras and compact cameras all have LCD screens although not all have true colour displays. The sharpness of the LCD screen depends on the resolution of the screen. This is the number of pixels the LCD can display. High resolution screens appear on the high-end cameras and are more expensive. Owing to crystal size only a certain number of crystals can appear in the limited size of the screen on the back of a camera. The high-end cameras may have resolutions approaching 5 million pixels. However, compared to the ability of some cameras to image at resolutions over over 40 million pixels (40 Mega-pixels) there is inevitably a loss of some resolution in the image displayed on the back of a camera.

ABOVE: The pentaprism assembly of an SLR camera, which allows you to view what the camera sees through the lens. The focusing screen is the flat screen with red markings.

The eyepiece is a small magnifying lens and it is this which enables you to focus your eye on the screen. This is crucial, as otherwise you wouldn’t be able to focus on anything that close to your face.

Additionally, because the image is formed on the focusing screen, this means that your eye doesn’t need to change focus because you are constantly looking at a fixed point, regardless of which area of the frame you are looking at.

Digital and film SLR cameras come factory-fitted with a focusing screen that has few, if any, markings. It is designed to give you a clear view of the subject and your camera’s autofocus points, with a reasonable balance between viewfinder brightness and manual focusing capability – Canon call it a standard precision matte focusing screen.

There are times, though, when some markings in the viewfinder could help you out. The most common situation is when photographing landscapes or architecture – a grid in the viewfinder would help you keep horizons and buildings straight. Some EOS cameras offer the option for interchangeable focusing screens, meaning that you can opt for a screen which offers markings.

If you have a different camera, you’ll find that the same functionality is present on your camera, though buttons and menus may be in places other than those shown here. Consult your owners’ manual.

Rather than developing and printing film, digital images can be downloaded easily to a computer. A photographer also can instantly review shots on an LCD (liquid crystal display) monitor built into the digital camera. The memory cards can hold a large number of images. After downloading the images to a computer, the flash cards can be erased for reuse.

A slight delay that occurs between clicking the camera’s shutter button and the camera actually taking the picture. The better the camera, the shorter this delay will be. Professional digital cameras do not suffer from this lag time, and the problem is becoming less pronounced even with cheaper consumer/pro-sumer cameras.

A battery is required for operation, so you’ll need to periodically recharge it (this can be done by connecting the camera to an AC power adapter and charging the battery in the camera, or by purchasing a separate AC battery charger).

Photos that are not quite as high quality as what you get with traditional single lens reflex (SRL) cameras, unless you purchase a very high-end (and expensive) digital camera. But even a mid-range digital camera produces photos that are suitable for the vast majority of purposes, including Web publishing.

There are two basic kinds of digital cameras: Digital SLR (single lens reflex) and non-SLR. Digital SLRs are generally more expensive and more accurate than non-SLR cameras, and include more professional features.

SLR cameras — whether film or digital — use a system of mirrors to take the image coming through the lens and reflect it up into the eyepiece. Thus, what you see in the eyepiece is exactly what you get on the camera back, where the image is recorded. In contrast, the eyepiece on a non-SLR camera looks out through a separate hole at the top of the camera. As a result, what’s seen through the viewfinder is slightly different from what comes through the lens. What you see is not exactly what you get.

While we sometimes think of the ability to preview a shot as a hallmark of digital cameras, there is an interesting side-effect of using an SLR camera in the digital world: The mirror that reflects light from the lens up to the viewfinder blocks the digital image sensor on the camera back until the image is shot. Therefore, digital SLR cameras generally do not let you frame and preview your shot on an LCD screen before shooting — you must frame your shot in the viewfinder, as you would with a traditional SLR camera.

There are a few digital SLR cameras that have come up with clever workarounds for this problem, but most digital SLRs, including the Canon Rebel, do not allow for LCD preview.

On the Canon Rebel, PowerShot G1 and G5, _the compartment is on the bottom of the camera. On the Pro1, the compartment is on the side. Push the button labeled BATT. OPEN in the direction of the arrow. Then to the right, place your thumb on the arrow and slide the battery compartment door to the right until it opens.

Digital still cameras can store images on a variety of different media types, such as SmartMedia, CompactFlash, and Sony’s MemoryStick. Some cameras even burn images to CD on the fly, or utilize small hard drives to store images. The CompactFlash format has emerged as the most popular storage media.

We’ll discuss resolution and compression in more detail later in this guide. Meanwhile, don’t be tempted to set your camera to the smaller formats and compression ratios just to squeeze more images onto a card. Memory cards and hard drives are cheap — even if you only intend to shoot for the web, you never know when the bureau chief might ask for a high resolution version for special purposes, or you decide you’d like to have a printable version. You can always remove data from an image, but you can’t restore data that was never there to begin with. For general purposes, we like to shoot at Medium format (2496 x 1664), Fine or Medium compression. Professional photographers use resolutions much higher than this.

The camera will have a slot into which you insert the flash card, generally on the right side of the camera. Place your thumb on the black arrow on the slot labeled CF OPEN and slide the small door to the slot in the direction of the arrow.

Swing open the door and insert the CompactFlash card into the slot, with the label facing toward the camera back and the arrow on the card pointing in. Push the card gently until it snaps into place. Then close the door until it clicks into place.

If your camera has a lens that extends automatically from the camera body, remove the lens cap from the front of the camera. This is important, because the camera lens will extend when the power is turned on. If it has to fight against the lens cap, the lens motor could be damaged.

On the Canon Rebel, use the large On/Off switch at the top right of the camera body, to the right of the Mode Dial. On the Canon PowerShot G1, the dial is on the top right. Turn the outer ring of the dial from Off to the red camera icon.

On the Canon PowerShot G5 and Pro 1, the power switch is the second dial from the right. With your thumb, move the dial to the red camera icon – it will flip back to its resting state afterwards, but the camera will be on.

As described in the introduction, digital SLR cameras generally do not let you frame shots on the LCD screen, while non-SLR cameras do. Regardless which kind of camera you’re using, set the camera to fully automatic mode before beginning. On the Canon Rebel,turn the main Mode dial to the plain square icon. For the G1, G5, and Pro 1, turn the main mode dial to “Auto.” Automatic mode will cause the camera to set focus, aperture, and shutter speed settings automatically.

To set PowerShot cameras to auto focus and exposure, use the Mode dial on the top right of the camera. Turn the dial until the word AUTO (in green) lines up with the black line to the left of the dial. Automatic mode on the Rebel is indicated in the photo in the Power-On section above.

Digital SLR: Use the viewfinder to frame your shot. In Automatic mode, the image should stay in focus as you move the camera. Twist the lens body to zoom in or out.

Non-SLR: Pull out the LCD screen from the back of the camera to see what the camera is framing for a shot. Alternatively, keep the LCD closed and look through the viewfinder on the back of the camera. Keep in mind that using the LCD screen will drain the battery more quickly. If you want to leave the LCD open but conserve battery power, tap the Display button on the back of the camera to temporarily turn it off.

The shutter button is almost always at the top right of the camera body, and is a large-ish button. To take a picture, press the shutter button on the top of the camera halfway down. Pressing the shutter button halfway tells the camera to set focus and exposure settings for the area inside one or more small rectangles seen in the viewfinder or on the LCD. You may also hear a beep or other sound from the camera, indicating that the camera is ready to shoot. This process is called pre-focusing.

When the rectangle(s) turn green, or a light flashes inside them, the camera has focused on and set exposure for the shot properly. Press the shutter button the rest of the way in to take the shot. While most modern cameras are fast enough to let you press the shutter button all the way down right away, without pre-focusing, it’s good practice to slow down and pre-focus first. You’ll get better results if both you and the camera have time to think about the composition of the shot.

Regardless the camera type, the new shot will appear on the LCD screen for two seconds (by default). This gives you a chance to review your shot before taking more, so you can make any necessary exposure or framing adjustments. If a shot comes out badly, you may want to delete it immediately, by pressing the trash can button on the camera (see Erasing Images). If you don’t want to wait two seconds, you can press the shutter button again to quickly take another shot. If you never want to wait two seconds, you can change this duration (or turn it off) in the camera’s menu.

The number of pictures remaining on your flash card will be displayed in the smaller view window on the top left of the camera (on the Rebel, the Info window is below the viewfinder on the back, rather than on top of the camera).

Settings that might vary from one picture to the next are made with the various dials and buttons on the camera body. Other settings specific to general camera operations, such as resolution and compression of the photos, are changed through the camera’s menu, which is displayed on the LCD screen.

On Canon cameras, access the menu by pressing the button labeled MENU. The menu will be displayed in the LCD screen. On the Rebel, the Menu button is at the top left of the camera back. _

The layout of the menu is somewhat different for every camera, but they generally cover the same thing. Here we cover the menus for the PowerShot G2 and the Rebel.

The Rebel has a total of five menus: Two shooting menus, one playback menu, and two setup menus. Menus can be navigated either with the Main Dial (the plastic wheel/knob at the top right of the camera or with the arrow keys. Major sections of the menu can also be navigated with the Jump button. Pressing the middle SET button activates the current menu choice (you should generally think of the SET button like an OK button as you work with the camera).

The Shooting menus let you set things like image resolution, whether the camera should beep for confirmation when you do certain things, ISO speed, set “bracketing modes,” and adjust the white balance. The Playback menu lets you “lock” images, rotate them, and run a slideshow on the LCD. The Setup menus let you do things like set LCD brightness, set the timestamp, or format a CF card.

You can press the Info button on the back of the Rebel at any time to see a listing of all current camera settings. This makes it easy to see at a glance all of the menu options currently set or selected.

In some menu items you may be asked to confirm an action (such as reformatting the flash card, which will prompt you to OK the action). In that case, used the left and right Omni Selector buttons and press the SET button on the back of the camera just to the left of the menu button to confirm the action. The SET button is the equivalent of saying “OK.”

This will restore the camera to the settings we recommend, with the exception of the Resolution setting, which you’ll need to change to one of the middle settings using the Func button.

You can change both the resolution and the compression level of the pictures you take with a digital camera. Resolution refers to the dimensions of the images as measured in pixels and compression refers to the amount of data used to describe the image.

3456 x 2304 – the best possible resolution on the Canon Rebel, not available on other cameras covered here. Using this resolution will dramatically reduce the number of shots you can fit on a card.

Set the resolution from the Shooting menu. Press the camera’s MENU button and navigate to the Shooting tab, then down to the Resolution or Image Quality sub-menu.

On the PowerShot cameras, use the Omni Selector dial, the gray button with four arrows that’s on the back top right of the camera, to navigate through the menu. On the Rebel, the arrow keys work much like the Omni Selector. Press on the downward pointing arrow until the Resolution settings line is highlighted. Then press the right or left arrows to move between and select a resolution. For Web purposes, we recommend using a resolution of at least 1024×768. For print purposes, we recommend using a resolution of at least 2048 x 1564.

Some cameras also let you access the image resolution directly, without going all the way through the menu system. On the PowerShot G5 and Pro1, set the resolution by pressing the FUNCbutton on the back of the camera. Then use the Omni Selector, the gray button with four arrows that’s on the back top right of the camera, to scroll down to the bottom entry in the list for resolution.

Digital cameras usually store pictures in JPEG format, which also happens to be the standard format for displaying images on the Web. The JPEG format allows you to change the compression of the pictures you take.

On the Canon PowerShot G1, set the compression through the menu. On the back of the camera, push the MENU button. The menu will be displayed in the LCD screen. Be sure the red Rec menu is highlighted. Then use the Omni Selectordial, the gray button with four arrows that’s on the back top right of the camera, to navigate through the menu. Press on the downward pointing arrow on the Omni Selector until the Compression settings line is highlighted. Then press the right or left arrows on the Omni Selector dial to move between and select one of the three icons that represent different settings:

There are several camera “modes” you can use that determine how much thinking the camera should do for you. Most cameras offer a range of options from fully manual to fully automatic, and everything in between. These modes let you more control over the kinds of pictures you take with your camera, and let you make choices such as whether to use manual focus, exposure, close-ups, portaiture, and so on.

The settings fall into two general categories, or “zones.” The most basic mode is fully automatic. On most Canon cameras, automatic mode is marked by an “A” or the word “Auto.” On the Rebel, automatic mode is marked with a plain square icon. As you turn the main dial clockwise from automatic mode, where the icon graphics are, you’re using the camera in the Basic zone. As you turn the dial counter-clockwise from Automatic mode, you’re using the camera in the Creative zone. Basic zone settings do more of the setup work automatically, while Creative zone modes give you more control. Basic zone modes can also be thought of as “pre-sets” for specific combinations of focus and exposure tailored for certain shooting conditions.

These pre-set options or modes are listed as you turn the dial clockwise from the auto setting. Various cameras have various combinations of these modes – your camera may not have some modes listed here.

Pan Focus Mode – for shots with a lot of action where focusing is difficult. This sets the camera at the widest possible angle to try to keep everything in focus. This mode does not exist on the Rebel.

Sports Mode – Icon = a running figure. Use this mode for shooting scenes with lots of motion, which you want to capture without blurring. This mode does not exist on earlier models of Canon cameras.

Movie Mode – Icon = a movie camera. Use this mode to shoot low-resolution movies directly in the camera (note: no digital still camera in movie mode can come close to the movie quality you get with a digital video camera — consider this mode a novelty only.) This mode does not exist on the Rebel.

Here are the options on the Canon cameras that give you more manual control over the camera settings, listed as you turn the Main Dial counter-clockwise from the auto setting:

Program mode is much like Automatic mode – the camera will still do most of the setup work for you — but it allows you to manually override some settings, such as focus, while the camera still automatically adjusts exposure. For example, you might want to manually adjust the focus if there’s an object in the foreground that the camera would automatically focus on, while you want to focus on something that’s more in the background.

Rebel: To manually focus the Rebel, first look for the AF/MF switch at the top left of the lens body. Make sure it’s set to MF (manual focus). Then, with the camera in P mode, turn the outermost focus ring on the lens body while looking through the viewfinder.

This mode allows you to manually adjust the shutter speed, while the camera automatically adjusts the aperture. Remember: Exposure is a combination of exposure and shutter speed.

G1: On the Canon G1 camera you manually adjust the shutter speed in TV mode by pressing the left and right arrows on the large Omni Selectorbutton on the back top right of the camera.

G5: On the Canon G5 you manually adjust the shutter speed in TV mode by turning the Main Dialon the top front right of the camera (in front of the shutter button).

The shutter speed you select will be shown in the LCD display – the higher the number the faster the shutter speed (most numbers are fractions of a second, while numbers with ” next to them are the slowest shutter speeds, measured in seconds).

This allows you to manually adjust the aperture, while the camera automatically adjusts the shutter speed. Remember: Exposure is a combination of exposure and shutter speed.

The aperture is the size of the opening to the camera lens. It’s measured in “F stops,” ranging from F2 to F8, with F2 being the largest opening and F8 being the smallest. Many cameras have ranges that go lower than F2 and higher than F8 (on the Rebel, available aperture values depend on what lens is currently attached to the camera).

G1: On the Canon G1 camera you manually adjust the aperture in AV mode by pressing the left and right arrows on the large Omni Selectorbutton on the back top right of the camera.

G5 and Pro 1: On the Canon G5 and Pro1, you manually adjust the aperture in AV mode by turning the Main Dialon the top front right of the camera (in front of the shutter button).

In Manu