space engineers lcd panel power usage free sample

Everything you will ever need to know about your ship and station displayed in real time on LCD panels in any vanilla games. modded games and servers! Now with cockpit panels support!

Thank all of you for making amazing creations with this script, using it and helping each other use it. Its 2022 - it"s been 7 years already since I uploaded first Configurable Automatic LCDs script and you are all still using it (in "a bit" upgraded form). Its just amazing :)

Every captain wants to have displays that show some useful info. Make your bridge display damaged blocks in engineering, engine room, etc. Make big screen by joining multiple Wide LCDs! Show power output, batteries status, laser antenna connections and much more. Make your docking bay display which landing gears are occupied. Make screens for docking fighers when landing gear is ready to dock so they can nicely see it from cockpit! Make one LCD per container to see its contents.. and much more!

Open your programmable block, click Edit, click Browse Workshop, select Automatic LCDs 2, click OK, Check code, Remember & Exit. Done. Your script is now updated.

If you have problem with some command then read the guide section for that command and make sure you use it correctly. Try to use it on separate LCD by itself so it"s easier for you to see the issue and definitely try some examples!

After many requests, we have decided to release our internal Replay Tool that we use to create our trailers. It allows you to record the movement and actions of multiple characters in the same world. You can use your video recording software of choice to capture these moments for cinematic purposes! It’s also super useful for epic screenshot creation. The tool allows you to be the director of your own Space Engineers film where you can carefully position and time different engineers with their own specific roles. We are extremely excited to see what the community will create with this!

Important: because it’s an internal tool, it has a very basic user interface and required advanced users to be used. We believe this is OK, because most video creators who would want to use it to create epic cinematic Space Engineers videos are advanced users.

There are now Steam trading cards to collect for Space Engineers! Collect a full set of cards to earn items that help you customize your Steam profile including backgrounds and badges.

There are fourteen new decorative blocks for people who want to buy them and support the development of Space Engineers, which are available on the Space Engineers Steam Store page. Within the package you will get following new blocks:

Beds can preserve characters’ inventory and toolbar while they"re offline and keeps them alive as long as there is oxygen available. Is considered to be the same as the Cryo Chamber Block, except oxygen is used from the environment. Space Engineers don’t work from nine to five, they work whenever they’re needed: day or night, during peace and war. But when it’s time to call it a day, every engineer looks forward to resting in these beds.

Kitchens are purely decorative. The kitchens in Space Engineers come well-equipped and include stunning visual details. Space Engineers overcome challenges everyday when they’re working on new planets or among the stars.

Planters are purely decorative, but they make outer space a bit warmer by housing life in a special glass container. Build your own garden on the space station. Planters not only help to liven up spaces, but the flora housed inside these capsules also remind many engineers of the homes they’ve left behind in order to explore the universe.

Couchescan be used as seats, so take your time to relax and take a break. You don’t need to always run, fly or work, you can enjoy your cozy room and enjoy the view. The last thing anyone would ever call a Space Engineer is ‘couch potato’, but who wouldn’t like to relax after a hard day’s work on this comfy furniture?

Armory and Armory Lockers can be used to decorate interiors and store weapons, ammunition, tools and bottles; both are small storages (400L), where you can keep your equipment. Space Engineers use lockers in order to ensure that keepsakes from home, toiletries and other items are kept safe.

Toiletscan be used as a seat. The latest and greatest interstellar lavatory technology has made many earth dwellers jealous of the facilities enjoyed by Space Engineers.

Toilet Seat that can be used as a seat and is fit for the creator of the legendary Red Ship; most engineers don’t want to get up after ‘taking care of business’.

Industrial Cockpits are used to control your ships. This industrial cockpit in both small and large grid versions will make your creations look much better. Offering unmatched visibility, the industrial cockpit enables engineers to experience stunning vistas while traversing landscapes and space.

Console blocks project blueprints for downscaled ships and stations, as well as display pictograms or customizable text. They are fantastic functional LCD panels where you can project your creations and show them to your friends. The sleek and crystal clear picture offered by this console allows Space Engineers to display designs and other important information.

Keen Software House needs to stay profitable in order to continue development and support of Space Engineers, and to take risks, to invest into experiments that may not pay off in the short term, and to develop innovative concepts.

A:Actually, even this update isn’t paid. The major part of this update (LCD screens, Replay Tool, new music tracks, smaller improvements) is free for everyone. Only the smaller and not mandatory part is paid - Decorative Pack, which you can purchase here.

A: To support future development of Space Engineers and other leading-edge projects we plan to work on at Keen Software House. Players kept asking us for something they could buy to support the development of Space Engineers, and the Decorative Pack is a great option for them.

A: Right after Space Engineers left early access and all hot issues were resolved. Most of the work was done by the Art team, the rest of the developers is working on other long-term updates.

A: We want more people to play Space Engineers, which means we must lower the barrier of entry. When the Space Engineers community grows, everyone benefits from this - more content on Workshop, more mods, more new ideas, more people to play with. This means that all non-mandatory features should be optional, so only those who really want them can pay for them. That’s why we decreased the price of Space Engineers, and made the Decorative Pack an optional purchase.

The various LCD Panel blocks are a great way to add a human touch to a ship or base by displaying useful images or text. For LCD configuration and usage, see LCD Surface Options.

Note: Some functional blocks, such as Cockpits, Programmable Blocks, Custom Turret Controllers, and Button Panels, have customizable LCD surfaces built in that work the same way as LCD Panel blocks, which are also discussed in detail under LCD Surface Options.

LCD Panels need to be built on a powered grid to work. Without power, they display an "Offline" text. While powered without having a text, image, or script set up, they display "Online".

LCD Panel blocks come in a variety of sizes from tiny to huge (see list below) and are available for large and small grid sizes. Note that LCD Panel blocks all have connections on their backs, and very few also on a second side.

All LCD Panels and LCD surfaces work with the same principle: They are capable of displaying dynamic scripts, or few inbuilt static images accompanied by editable text. Access the ship"s Control Panel Screen to configure LCD Panels or LCD surfaces; or face the LCD Panel block and press "K".

A Text Panel, despite its name, can also display images. On large grid, it is rectangular and does not fully cover the side of a 1x1x1 block. On small grid it is 1x1x1, the smallest possible LCD block in game.

On large grid, you choose the Text Panel when you need something that has rectangular dimensions that make it look like a wall-mounted TV or computer screen. If you want to display images, this one works best with the built-in posters whose names end in "H" or "V" (for horizontal or vertical rotation). On Small grid, you place these tiny display surfaces so you can see them well while seated in a cockpit or control seat, to create a custom display array of flight and status information around you.

Corner LCDs are much smaller display panels that typically hold a few lines of text. They don"t cover the block you place them on and are best suited as signage for doors, passages, or containers. They are less suitable for displaying images, even though it"s possible. If you enable the "Keep aspect ratio" option, the image will take up less than a third of the available space.

These huge Sci-Fi LCD Panels come in sizes of 5x5, 5x3, and 3x3 blocks, and can be built on large grids only. These panels are only available to build if you purchase the "Sparks of the Future" pack DLC.

They work the same as all other LCD Panels, the only difference is that they are very large. In the scenario that comes with the free "Sparks of the Future" update, they are used prominently as advertisement boards on an asteroid station.

This LCD panel can be built on large and small grids. The transparent LCD is basically a 1x1x1 framed window that displays images and text. It is part of the paid "Decorative Blocks Pack #2" DLC.

What is special about them is that if you set the background color to black, this panel becomes a transparent window with a built-in display. In contrast to other LCD Panels it has no solid backside, which makes it ideal to construct transparent cockpit HUDs, or simply as cosmetic decoration.

While configuring an LCD Panel, the GUI covers up the display in-world and you can"t see how the text or images comes out. In the UI Options, you can lower the UI Background opacity to be translucent, so you can watch what you are doing more easily.

DaVinci Resolve is the world’s only solution that combines editing, color correction, visual effects, motion graphics and audio post production all in one software tool! Its elegant, modern interface is fast to learn and easy for new users, yet powerful for professionals. DaVinci Resolve lets you work faster and at a higher quality because you don’t have to learn multiple apps or switch software for different tasks. That means you can work with camera original quality images throughout the entire process. It’s like having your own post production studio in a single app! Best of all, by learning DaVinci Resolve, you’re learning how to use the exact same tools used by Hollywood professionals!

High end professionals working on feature films and television shows use DaVinci Resolve more than any other solution! That’s because it’s known for incredible quality and creative tools that are light years beyond the competition. You get DaVinci’s Emmy™ award winning image technology with 32‑bit float processing, patented YRGB color science and a massive wide gamut color space for the latest HDR workflows. You also get the legendary quality of Fairlight audio processing for the best sound in the industry! With DaVinci Resolve, you get the same tools professional colorists, editors, VFX artists and sound engineers use every day to finish your favorite films and streaming television shows!

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DaVinci Resolve is divided into "pages", each of which gives you a dedicated workspace and tools for a specific task. Editing is done on the cut and edit pages, visual effects and motion graphics on the Fusion page, color correction on the color page, audio on the Fairlight page, and media organization and output on the media and deliver pages. All it takes is a single click to switch between tasks!

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The DaVinci Resolve color page is Hollywood’s most advanced color corrector and has been used to color and finish more high end feature films and television shows than any other system! It’s also approachable with features designed to make it easier for new users to get great results while they continue to learn the advanced tools. For example, new primary control sliders will be familiar to anyone who’s used image editing software, making it easy to adjust contrast, temperature, midtone detail, saturation and more. The color page has an incredible range of primary and secondary color grading features including PowerWindows™, qualifiers, tracking, advanced HDR grading tools and more! Learn More

The media and delivery pages have everything you need to import, manage and deliver final projects. The media page is a dedicated full screen workspace that lets you prepare footage, sync clips, organize media into bins and add metadata before you start editing. Use the clone palette to ensure every bit of data in the camera media cards is copied during backup. During edit or grading, stream video outputs to a remote client monitor via DeckLink. You can output and upload files to YouTube, Vimeo and Twitter from anywhere page using the quick export tool. The deliver page gives you total control over all encoding options and formats, along with a render queue for exporting multiple jobs! Learn More

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DaVinci Resolve color panels let you adjust multiple parameters at once so you can create unique looks that are impossible with a mouse and keyboard. The incredibly small DaVinci Resolve Micro Panel is great for new colorists just getting started or anyone that needs a portable panel. It features 3 high quality trackballs, knobs for primary adjustment controls and buttons for playback and navigation. The DaVinci Resolve Mini Panel features additional controls and screens for accessing virtually all palettes and tools. For the ultimate in control, the DaVinci Resolve Advanced Panel gives high end professional colorists access to every single feature and command mapped to a specific button! Learn More

Designed in collaboration with professional sound engineers, Fairlight hardware consoles streamline your workflow, acting as a natural extension of the software. The intuitive, task based design adapts automatically, putting the controls you need right at your fingertips when you need them. That means you"ll spend more time being creative and work faster than using just a mouse and keyboard! The Fairlight Desktop Console is a complete mixing console that’s ideal for use in home studios, small suites or on the road. You can also install Fairlight Studio Console components into your own desk or purchase a pre‑configured multi bay Fairlight console for dedicated audio suites and scoring stages! Learn More

The best creative tools shouldn’t be limited to Hollywood. That’s why there’s a free version of DaVinci Resolve, so you can learn how to use the same tools that professional Hollywood artists use. DaVinci Resolve is designed to inspire creativity so you can focus on doing your best work. Once you learn the software and start using it for more work, you can purchase DaVinci Resolve Studio which adds tons of additional effects, 3D and more. Adding an editor keyboard, color control panel, or audio console lets you work even faster because you can use both hands at the same time, allowing you to be more creative and do things that are impossible with a mouse!

The broad umbrella of Electrical Engineering (EE) is involved in some part in almost all modern day technological advances and products in areas ranging across telephony, mobile and satellite communications, fiber optics, electrical power and machinery, instrumentation, computer systems, satellite systems, microelectronics, robotics, graphics, automatic control, and telecommunications to name but a few. The Electrical Engineering major is a flexible, broad-based program that provides a rigorous grounding in the analytical and experimental foundations of electrical engineering while allowing a student substantial flexibility in crafting an individualized program reflecting his or her interests and career goals.

Electrical engineers can apply physics and chemistry in modern nanotechnology devices, can encode and manipulate information in circuits and networks, and can mathematically understand and reason with large amounts of data in real time.  This makes electrical engineering one of the broadest forms of engineering, resulting in very broad set of possible careers.  The societal impact of electrical engineering can be found in numerous domains, ranging from smartphones, to 4G wireless, to medical imaging, to electric as well as driverless cars, to the internet of things.

EE includes the engineering of electrons, magnets, photons, electro-magnetic waves, quantum states, and electro-mechanical structures. Electrically Engineered systems provide communication, sensing, actuation, display, storage, conversion, control, and computation.  EE’s have given us audio and video capture, processing, storage, transmission, and reproduction, wireless, wired, and optical communications, gigabit and terabit data storage systems, gigahertz processors, radar, microwaves, micro- and nano-fabrication, medical sensing, ultrasound, MRI, personal health monitoring, autonomous robot control, solar cells and energy harvesting, LCDs, flat screens, and projection displays.  The EE discipline includes both the design and implementation of physical realizations (devices, circuits, antennas) and the mathematical tools for optimizing the exploitation of these systems (control theory, information theory, digital logic, signal processing).

A long time ago, a crazy guy with a slightly-too-large forehead wondered what lightning was and if we could harness its energy. In pursuit of his curiosity, he ended up flying a kite with a key on it through a thunderstorm and electrocuting himself. Because of this (somewhat idiotic) experiment, I can communicate this bloated story about our beloved founder, Ben Franklin, to you no matter how far away we are from each other. I think people take feats like this for granted. Man’s ability to harness nature is what makes it exciting to be alive. As electrical engineers, we are at the frontier of invention and innovation: we manipulate the world to build tomorrow we want, today.

Grit. Plain and simple: electrical engineering is not easy. Software engineers at least have tools to debug their programs. Debugging hardware is ever more intricate. You have to have a thorough understanding of your project, and copying/pasting errors onto Stack Overflow won’t always work. Of course, the more difficult something is, the more rewarding it becomes. Successful electrical engineers persevere in times of hardship. The most interesting part? If you do your job perfectly, no one should notice your work. The hallmark of a great engineer is his invisibility. The product functions so well that the inventor who created it disappears.

Outside of class, I am Co-Director of the Penn Aerospace Club [http://pennaero.com/]. We launch physics experiments to the edge of space on high altitude balloons, certify our members to launch rockets, and build our own custom RC aircraft. I co-founded the club my freshman year, and Penn ESE has been incredibly supportive of our work.

To combine my interests in outer space and nanodevices, I’m submatriculating into a Masters in Electrical Engineering, with a thesis focused on nanofabrication equipment optimized for the space environment.

To me, EE is what establishes the connection between physics and the technology that people interact with in their daily lives. If you’re curious about how the circuitry in your laptop works, how transmission lines transmit power, or how wireless signals connect people across the globe, EE is for you.

It is tempting to associate EE exclusively with electricity, but its applications are much more far-reaching than simple electronics and electrical systems. Electrical engineering is involved in most technological developments, ranging from communication systems and electrical power systems to design of consumer products and even applications in the financial industry. Naturally, students in electrical engineering study a wide range of subjects that can be readily applied to such fields, including a healthy mix of mathematics, computer science, physics, and project design.

After my first year at Penn, I served in the Korean Army as an operations specialist / English interpreter for two years. Immediately after, I worked as a research intern at an embedded systems lab in Korea, where I explored different usages of smartphone’s built-in sensors; the year after, I worked at a hedge fund in Mumbai as a summer research analyst. The most recent summer, I worked as a quantitative research intern at AQR, and I’m still deciding on my career for the coming years, hoping that I will hit the right balance between my interests in electrical engineering and economics.

What other activities do you participate in at Penn?I currently head the Korea-Penn Engineers and Scientists Association (K-PEnSA) and the IEEE-HKN honors society as part of The Architechs. In the past, I’ve been involved in Penn Electric Racing and also worked at the Real-Time & Embedded Systems Laboratory (mLab) for multiple semesters. Outside engineering, I’m heavily involved in the Wharton Investment Trading Group (WITG)’s Quant team, and Penn Chambers Music Society as a pianist. I also manage the Instagram account for the squirrels on Penn campus (@upennsquirrels), so please follow if you haven’t!

EE is the subject that combines the power of software and the excitement of hardware. I can’t deny that coding is fun, but making a software can never give you the excitement of watching a physical product moving in front of you helping people solve real problems. This is a subject that keeps pushing the waves of software engineering, but also defines the future of electronics technology.

This is probably true of any field, but I think you have to embrace the fact that you will never really be finished learning–successful electrical engineers tend to be lifelong learners. Another important part is understanding how to manage complexity by using abstraction and systems thinking. I think scientific discipline in general is about choosing an appropriate field of view that lets you model everything that you care about in the problem at an appropriate level of detail.

A solar cell panel, solar electric panel, photo-voltaic (PV) module, PV panel or solar panel is an assembly of photovoltaic solar cells mounted in a (usually rectangular) frame, and a neatly organised collection of PV panels is called a photovoltaic system or solar array. Solar panels capture sunlight as a source of radiant energy, which is converted into electric energy in the form of direct current (DC) electricity. Arrays of a photovoltaic system can be used to generate solar electricity that supplies electrical equipment directly, or feeds power back into an alternate current (AC) grid via an inverter system.

In 1881, the American inventor Charles Fritts created the first commercial solar panel, which was reported by Fritts as "continuous, constant and of considerable force not only by exposure to sunlight but also to dim, diffused daylight."coal-fired power plants.

In 1939, Russell Ohl created the solar cell design that is used in many modern solar panels. He patented his design in 1941.Bell Labs to create the first commercially viable silicon solar cell.

Photovoltaic modules use light energy (photons) from the Sun to generate electricity through the photovoltaic effect. Most modules use wafer-based crystalline silicon cells or thin-film cells. The structural (load carrying) member of a module can be either the top layer or the back layer. Cells must be protected from mechanical damage and moisture. Most modules are rigid, but semi-flexible ones based on thin-film cells are also available. The cells are usually connected electrically in series, one to another to the desired voltage, and then in parallel to increase current. The power (in watts) of the module is the mathematical product of the voltage (in volts) and the current (in amperes) of the module. The manufacturing specifications on solar panels are obtained under standard conditions, which is not the real operating condition the solar panels are exposed to on the installation site.

A PV junction box is attached to the back of the solar panel and functions as its output interface. External connections for most photovoltaic modules use MC4 connectors to facilitate easy weatherproof connections to the rest of the system. A USB power interface can also be used.

A single solar module can produce only a limited amount of power; most installations contain multiple modules adding voltages or current to the wiring and PV system. A photovoltaic system typically includes an array of photovoltaic modules, an inverter, a battery pack for energy storage, charge controller, interconnection wiring, circuit breakers, fuses, disconnect switches, voltage meters, and optionally a solar tracking mechanism. Equipment is carefully selected to optimize output, and energy storage, reduce power loss during power transmission, and convert from direct current to alternating current.

Smart modules are different from traditional solar panels because the power electronics embedded in the module offers enhanced functionality such as panel-level maximum power point tracking, monitoring, and enhanced safety.

MPPT power optimizers, a DC-to-DC converter technology developed to maximize the power harvest from solar photovoltaic systems by compensating for shading effects, wherein a shadow falling across a section of a module causes the electrical output of one or more strings of cells in the module to fall to zero, but not having the output of the entire module fall to zero.

Solar panel manufacturers partnered with micro-inverter companies to create AC modules and power optimizer companies partnered with module manufacturers to create smart modules.

Panels are typically connected in series of one or more panels to form strings to achieve a desired output voltage, and strings can be connected in parallel to provide the desired current capability (amperes) of the PV system.

The amount of light absorbed by a solar cell depends on the angle of incidence of whatever direct sunlight hits it. This is partly because the amount falling on the panel is proportional to the cosine of the angle of incidence, and partly because at high angle of incidence more light is reflected. To maximize total energy output, modules are often oriented to face south (in the Northern Hemisphere) or north (in the Southern Hemisphere) and tilted to allow for the latitude. Solar tracking can be used to keep the angle of incidence small (see next section).

Solar panels are often coated with an anti-reflective coating, which is one or more thin layers of substances with refractive indices intermediate between that of silicon and that of air. This causes destructive interference in the reflected light, diminishing the amount. Photovoltaic manufacturers have been working to decrease reflectance with improved anti-reflective coatings or with textured glass.

Large utility-scale solar power plants usually use ground-mounted photovoltaic systems. Their solar modules are held in place by racks or frames that are attached to ground-based mounting supports.

Ballasted footing mounts, such as concrete or steel bases that use weight to secure the panel system in position and do not require through penetration. This mounting method allows for decommissioning or relocation of solar panel systems with no adverse effect on the roof structure.

On the other hand, east- and west-facing arrays (covering an east–west facing roof, for example) are commonly deployed. Even though such installations will not produce the maximum possible average power from the individual solar panels, the cost of the panels is now usually cheaper than the tracking mechanism and they can provided more economically valuable power during morning and evening peak demands than north or south facing systems.

In general with solar panels, if not enough current is taken from PVs, then power isn"t maximised. If too much current is taken then the voltage collapses. The optimum current draw depends on the amount of sunlight striking the panel. Solar panel capacity is specified by the MPP (maximum power point) value of solar panels in full sunlight.

Solar inverters convert the DC power to AC power by performing the process of maximum power point tracking (MPPT): solar inverter samples the output Power (I-V curve) from the solar cell and applies the proper resistance (load) to solar cells to obtain maximum power.

MPP (Maximum power point) of the solar panel consists of MPP voltage (V mpp) and MPP current (I mpp): it is a capacity of the solar panel and the higher value can make higher MPP.

Solar panels are wired to inverters in parallel or series (a "string"). In string connections the voltages of the modules add, but the current is determined by the lowest performing panel. This is known as the "Christmas light effect". In parallel connections the voltages must be the same to work, but currents add. Arrays are connected up to meet the voltage requirements of the inverters and to not greatly exceed the current limits.

Micro-inverters work independently to enable each panel to contribute its maximum possible output for a given amount of sunlight, but can be more expensive.

Outdoor solar panels usually include MC4 connectors. Automotive solar panels may also include an auxiliary power outlet and/or USB adapter. Indoor panels (including solar pv glasses, thin films and windows) can integrate a microinverter (AC Solar panels).

Each module is rated by its DC output power under standard test conditions (STC) and hence the on field output power might vary. Power typically ranges from 100 to 365 Watts (W). The efficiency of a module determines the area of a module given the same rated output – an 8% efficient 230 W module will have twice the area of a 16% efficient 230 W module. Some commercially available solar modules exceed 24% efficiency.2 (16.22 W/ft2).

Capacity factor of solar panels is limited primarily by geographic latitude and varies significantly depending on cloud cover, dust, day length and other factors. In the United Kingdom, seasonal capacity factor ranges from 2% (December) to 20% (July), with average annual capacity factor of 10–11%, while in Spain the value reaches 18%.

Research by Imperial College London has shown that solar panel efficiency is improved by studding the light-receiving semiconductor surface with aluminum nanocylinders, similar to the ridges on Lego blocks. The scattered light then travels along a longer path in the semiconductor, absorbing more photons to be converted into current. Although these nanocylinders have been used previously (aluminum was preceded by gold and silver), the light scattering occurred in the near-infrared region and visible light was absorbed strongly. Aluminum was found to have absorbed the ultraviolet part of the spectrum, while the visible and near-infrared parts of the spectrum were found to be scattered by the aluminum surface. This, the research argued, could bring down the cost significantly and improve the efficiency as aluminum is more abundant and less costly than gold and silver. The research also noted that the increase in current makes thinner film solar panels technically feasible without "compromising power conversion efficiencies, thus reducing material consumption".

Emerging, third-generation solar technologies use advanced thin-film cells. They produce a relatively high-efficiency conversion for a lower cost compared with other solar technologies. Also, high-cost, high-efficiency, and close-packed rectangular multi-junction (MJ) cells are usually used in solar panels on spacecraft, as they offer the highest ratio of generated power per kilogram lifted into space. MJ-cells are compound semiconductors and made of gallium arsenide (GaAs) and other semiconductor materials. Another emerging PV technology using MJ-cells is concentrator photovoltaics (CPV).

Module performance is generally rated under standard test conditions (STC): irradiance of 1,000 W/m2, solar spectrum of AM 1.5 and module temperature at 25 °C.solar irradiance, direction and tilt of modules, cloud cover, shading, soiling, state of charge, and temperature. Performance of a module or panel can be measured at different time intervals with a DC clamp meter or shunt and logged, graphed, or charted with a chart recorder or data logger.

For optimum performance, a solar panel needs to be made of similar modules oriented in the same direction perpendicular to direct sunlight. Bypass diodes are used to circumvent broken or shaded panels and optimize output. These bypass diodes are usually placed along groups of solar cells to create a continuous flow.

Electrical characteristics include nominal power (PMAX, measured in W), open-circuit voltage (VOC), short-circuit current (ISC, measured in amperes), maximum power voltage (VMPP), maximum power current (IMPP), peak power, (watt-peak, Wp), and module efficiency (%).

The peak power rating, Wp, is the maximum output under standard test conditions (not the maximum possible output). Typical modules, which could measure approximately 1 by 2 metres (3 ft × 7 ft), will be rated from as low as 75 W to as high as 600 W, depending on their efficiency. At the time of testing, the test modules are binned according to their test results, and a typical manufacturer might rate their modules in 5 W increments, and either rate them at +/- 3%, +/-5%, +3/-0% or +5/-0%.

The performance of a photovoltaic (PV) module depends on the environmental conditions, mainly on the global incident irradiance G in the plane of the module. However, the temperature T of the p–n junction also influences the main electrical parameters: the short circuit current ISC, the open circuit voltage VOC and the maximum power Pmax. In general, it is known that VOC shows a significant inverse correlation with T, while for ISC this correlation is direct, but weaker, so that this increase does not compensate for the decrease in VOC. As a consequence, Pmax decreases when T increases. This correlation between the power output of a solar cell and the working temperature of its junction depends on the semiconductor material, and is due to the influence of T on the concentration, lifetime, and mobility of the intrinsic carriers, i.e., electrons and gaps. inside the photovoltaic cell.

The ability of solar modules to withstand damage by rain, hail, heavy snow load, and cycles of heat and cold varies by manufacturer, although most solar panels on the U.S. market are UL listed, meaning they have gone through testing to withstand hail.

Advancements in photovoltaic technologies have brought about the process of "doping" the silicon substrate to lower the activation energy thereby making the panel more efficient in converting photons to retrievable electrons.

The power output of a photovoltaic (PV) device decreases over time. This decrease is due to its exposure to solar radiation as well as other external conditions. The degradation index, which is defined as the annual percentage of output power loss, is a key factor in determining the long-term production of a photovoltaic plant. To estimate this degradation, the percentage of decrease associated with each of the electrical parameters. The individual degradation of a photovoltaic module can significantly influence the performance of a complete string. Furthermore, not all modules in the same installation decrease their performance at exactly the same rate. Given a set of modules exposed to long-term outdoor conditions, the individual degradation of the main electrical parameters and the increase in their dispersion must be considered. As each module tends to degrade differently, the behavior of the modules will be increasingly different over time, negatively affecting the overall performance of the plant.

There are several studies dealing with the power degradation analysis of modules based on different photovoltaic technologies available in the literature. According to a recent study,

Solar panel conversion efficiency, typically in the 20% range, is reduced by the accumulation of dust, grime, pollen, and other particulates on the solar panels, collectively referred to as soiling. "A dirty solar panel can reduce its power capabilities by up to 30% in high dust/pollen or desert areas", says Seamus Curran, associate professor of physics at the University of Houston and director of the Institute for NanoEnergy, which specializes in the design, engineering, and assembly of nanostructures.

There are also occupational hazards with solar panel installation and maintenance. A 2015–2018 study in the UK investigated 80 PV-related incidents of fire, with over 20 "serious fires" directly caused by PV installation, including 37 domestic buildings and 6 solar farms. In 1⁄3 of the incidents a root cause was not established and in a majority of others was caused by poor installation, faulty product or design issues. The most frequent single element causing fires was the DC isolators.

Cleaning methods for solar panels can be divided into 5 groups: manual tools, mechanized tools (such as tractor mounted brushes), installed hydraulic systems (such as sprinklers), installed robotic systems, and deployable robots. Manual cleaning tools are by far the most prevalent method of cleaning, most likely because of the low purchase cost. However, in a Saudi Arabian study done in 2014, it was found that "installed robotic systems, mechanized systems, and installed hydraulic systems are likely the three most promising technologies for use in cleaning solar panels".

A 2021 study by Harvard Business Review indicates that, unless reused, by 2035 the discarded panels would outweigh new units by a factor of 2.56. They forecast the cost of recycling a single PV panel by then would reach $20–30, which would increase the LCOE of PV by a factor 4. Analyzing the US market, where no EU-like legislation exists as of 2021, HBR noted that without mandatory recycling legislation and with the cost of sending it to a landfill being just $1–2 there was a significant financial incentive to discard the decommissioned panels. The study assumed that consumers would replace panels half way through a 30 year lifetime to make a profit.

The price of solar electrical power has continued to fall so that in many countries it has become cheaper than fossil fuel electricity from the electricity grid since 2012, a phenomenon known as grid parity.

For merchant solar power stations, where the electricity is being sold into the electricity transmission network, the cost of solar energy will need to match the wholesale electricity price. This point is sometimes called "wholesale grid parity" or "busbar parity".

Some photovoltaic systems, such as rooftop installations, can supply power directly to an electricity user. In these cases, the installation can be competitive when the output cost matches the price at which the user pays for their electricity consumption. This situation is sometimes called "retail grid parity", "socket parity" or "dynamic grid parity".UN-Energy in 2012 suggests areas of sunny countries with high electricity prices, such as Italy, Spain and Australia, and areas using diesel generators, have reached retail grid parity.

There are many practical applications for the use of solar panels or photovoltaics. It can first be used in agriculture as a power source for irrigation. In health care solar panels can be used to refrigerate medical supplies. It can also be used for infrastructure. PV modules are used in photovoltaic systems and include a large variety of electric devices:

When electric networks are down, such as during the October 2019 California power shutoff, solar panels are often insufficient to fully provide power to a house or other structure, because they are designed to supply power to the grid, not directly to homes.

There is no silver bullet in electricity or energy demand and bill management, because customers (sites) have different specific situations, e.g. different comfort/convenience needs, different electricity tariffs, or different usage patterns. Electricity tariff may have a few elements, such as daily access and metering charge, energy charge (based on kWh, MWh) or peak demand charge (e.g. a price for the highest 30min energy consumption in a month). PV is a promising option for reducing energy charge when electricity price is reasonably high and continuously increasing, such as in Australia and Germany. However, for sites with peak demand charge in place, PV may be less attractive if peak demands mostly occur in the late afternoon to early evening, for example residential communities. Overall, energy investment is largely an economical decision and it is better to make investment decisions based on systematical evaluation of options in operational improvement, energy efficiency, onsite generation and energy storage.

Solar module quality assurance involves testing and evaluating solar cells and Solar Panels to ensure the quality requirements of them are met. Solar modules (or panels) are expected to have a long service life between 20 and 40 years.physical tests, laboratory studies, and numerical analyses.life cycle. Various companies such as Southern Research Energy & Environment, SGS Consumer Testing Services, TÜV Rheinland, Sinovoltaics, Clean Energy Associates (CEA), CSA Solar International and Enertis provide services in solar module quality assurance."The implementation of consistent traceable and stable manufacturing processes becomes mandatory to safeguard and ensure the quality of the PV Modules"

Kifilideen, Osanyinpeju; Adewole, Aderinlewo; Adetunji, Olayide; Emmanuel, Ajisegiri (2018). "Performance Evaluation of Mono-Crystalline Photovoltaic Panels in Funaab,Alabata, Ogun State, Nigeria Weather Condition". International Journal of Innovations in Engineering Research and Technology. 5 (2): 8–20.

da Silva, Wilson (17 May 2016). "Milestone in solar cell efficiency achieved". . Retrieved 9 September 2018. A new solar cell configuration developed by engineers at the University of New South Wales has pushed sunlight-to-electricity conversion efficiency to 34.5% -- establishing a new world record for unfocused sunlight and nudging closer to the theoretical limits for such a device.

Crawford, Mike (October 2012). "Self-Cleaning Solar Panels Maximize Efficiency". The American Society of Mechanical Engineers. ASME. Retrieved 15 September 2014.

Ilse K, Micheli L, Figgis BW, Lange K, Dassler D, Hanifi H, Wolfertstetter F, Naumann V, Hagendorf C, Gottschalg R, Bagdahn J (2019). "Techno-Economic Assessment of Soiling Losses and Mitigation Strategies for Solar Power Generation". Joule. 3 (10): 2303–2321. doi:

Patringenaru, Ioana (August 2013). "Cleaning Solar Panels Often Not Worth the Cost, Engineers at UC San Diego Find". UC San Diego News Center. UC San Diego News Center. Retrieved 31 May 2015.

Alshehri, Ali; Parrott, Brian; Outa, Ali; Amer, Ayman; Abdellatif, Fadl; Trigui, Hassane; Carrasco, Pablo; Patel, Sahejad; Taie, Ihsan (December 2014). "Dust mitigation in the desert: Cleaning mechanisms for solar panels in arid regions". 2014 Saudi Arabia Smart Grid Conference (SASG): 1–6. doi:10.1109/SASG.2014.7274289. ISBN 978-1-4799-6158-0. S2CID 23216963.

Cynthia, Latunussa (9 October 2015). "Solar Panels can be recycled – BetterWorldSolutions – The Netherlands". BetterWorldSolutions – The Netherlands. Retrieved 29 April 2018.

Latunussa, Cynthia E.L.; Ardente, Fulvio; Blengini, Gian Andrea; Mancini, Lucia (2016). "Life Cycle Assessment of an innovative recycling process for crystalline silicon photovoltaic panels". Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells. 156: 101–11. doi:

Morgan Baziliana; et al. (17 May 2012). Re-considering the economics of photovoltaic power. UN-Energy (Report). United Nations. Archived from the original on 16 May 2016. Retrieved 20 November 2012.

Electromagnetic radiation consists of waves of electric and magnetic energy moving together (i.e., radiating) through space at the speed of light.  Taken together, all forms of electromagnetic energy are referred to as the electromagnetic "spectrum."  Radio waves and microwaves emitted by transmitting antennas are one form of electromagnetic energy.  They are collectively referred to as "radiofrequency" or "RF" energy or radiation.  Note that the term “radiation” does not mean “radioactive.”  Often, the terms "electromagnetic field" or "radiofrequency field" are used to indicate the presence of electromagnetic or RF energy.

The energy levels associated with RF and microwave radiation, on the other hand, are not great enough to cause the ionization of atoms and molecules, and RF energy is, therefore, is a type of non-ionizing radiation.  Other types of non-ionizing radiation include visible and infrared light.  Often the term "radiation" is used, colloquially, to imply that ionizing radiation (radioactivity), such as that associated with nuclear power plants, is present.  Ionizing radiation should not be confused with the lower-energy, non-ionizing radiation with respect to possible biological effects, since the mechanisms of action are quite different. (Back to Index)

An RF electromagnetic wave has both an electric and a magnetic component (electric field and magnetic field), and it is often convenient to express the intensity of the RF environment at a given location in terms of units specific to each component. For example, the unit "volts per meter" (V/m) is used to express the strength of the electric field (electric "field strength"), and the unit "amperes per meter" (A/m) is used to express the strength of the magnetic field (magnetic "field strength").  Another commonly used unit for characterizing the total electromagnetic field is "power density."  Power density is most appropriately used when the point of measurement is far enough away from an antenna to be located in the "far-field" zone of the antenna.

Power density is defined as power flow per unit area.  For example, power density is commonly expressed in terms of watts per square meter (W/m2), milliwatts per square centimeter (mW/cm2), or microwatts per square centimeter (µW/cm2).  One mW/cm2 equals 10 W/m2, and 100 µW/cm2 equal one W/m2. With respect to frequencies in the microwave range, power density is usually used to express intensity of exposure.

Studies have shown that environmental levels of RF energy routinely encountered by the general public are typically far below levels necessary to produce significant heating and increased body temperature.  However, there may be situations, particularly in workplace environments near high-powered RF sources, where the recommended limits for safe exposure of human beings to RF energy could be exceeded.  In such cases, restrictive measures or mitigation actions may be necessary to ensure the safe use of RF energy. (Back to Index)

For many years, research into the possible biological effects of RF energy has been carried out in laboratories around the world, and such research is continuing.  Past research has resulted in a large number of peer-reviewed scientific publications on this topic.  For many years the U.S. Government has sponsored research into the biological effects of RF energy.  The majority of this work was initiated by the Department of Defense, due in part, to the extensive military interest in using RF equipment such as radar and other relatively high-powered radio transmitters for routine military operations.  In addition, some U.S. civilian federal agencies responsible for health and safety, such as the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), have sponsored and conducted research in this area.  At the present time, other U.S. civilian federal health and safety agencies and institutions, such as the National Toxicology Program and the National Institutes of Health, have also initiated RF bioeffects research.

The FCC guidelines for human exposure to RF electromagnetic fields were derived from the recommendations of two expert organizations, the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP) and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).  Both the NCRP exposure criteria and the IEEE standard were developed by expert scientists and engineers after extensive reviews of the scientific literature related to RF biological effects.  The exposure guidelines are based on thresholds for known adverse effects, and they incorporate prudent margins of safety.  In adopting the current RF exposure guidelines, the FCC consulted with the EPA, FDA, OSHA and NIOSH, and obtained their support for the guidelines that the FCC is using.

Many countries in Europe and elsewhere use exposure guidelines developed by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP).  The ICNIRP safety limits are generally similar to those of the NCRP and IEEE, with a few exceptions.  For example, ICNIRP recommends somewhat different exposure levels in the lower and upper frequency ranges and for localized exposure due to such devices as hand-held cellular telephones.  One of the goals of the WHO EMF Project (see above) is to provide a framework for international harmonization of RF safety standards.  The NCRP, IEEE and ICNIRP exposure guidelines identify the same threshold level at which harmful biological effects may occur, and the values for Maximum Permissible Exposure (MPE) recommended for electric and magnetic field strength and power density in both documents are based on this level.  The threshold level is a Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) value for the whole body of 4 watts per kilogram (4 W/kg).

The exposure limits used by the FCC are expressed in terms of SAR, electric and magnetic field strength and power density for transmitters operating at frequencies from 100 kHz to 100 GHz.  The applicable limits depend upon the type of sources (e.g, whether a cellphone or a broadcast transmitting antenna). The actual values can be found in our informational bulletin available in OET Bulletin 65. (Back to Index)

Low-powered, intermittent, or inaccessible RF antennas and facilities (including many cell sites) are normally "categorically excluded" from the requirement of routine evaluation for RF exposure.  These exclusions are based on calculations and measurement data indicating that such transmitting stations or devices are unlikely to cause exposures in excess of the guidelines under normal conditions of use.  The FCC"s policies on RF exposure and categorical exclusion can be found in Section 1.1307(b) of the FCC"s Rules and Regulations [47 CFR 1.1307(b)].  It should be emphasized, however, that these exclusions are not exclusions from compliance, but, rather, only exclusions from routine evaluation.  Transmitters or facilities that are otherwise categorically excluded from evaluation may be required, on a case-by-case basis, to demonstrate compliance when evidence of potential non-compliance of the transmitter or facility is brought to the Commission"s attention [see 47 CFR 1.1307(c) and (d)]. (Back to Index)

In recent years, publicity, speculation, and concern over claims of possible health effects due to RF emissions from hand-held wireless telephones prompted various research programs to investigate whether there is any risk to users of these devices  There is no scientific evidence to date that proves that wireless phone usage can lead to cancer or a variety of other health effects, including headaches, dizziness or memory loss.  However, studies are ongoing and key government agencies, such as the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) continue to monitor the results of the latest scientific research on these topics.  Also, as noted above, the World Health Organization has established an ongoing program to monitor research in this area and make recommendations related to the safety of mobile phones.

Measurements and analysis of SAR in models of the human head have shown that the 1.6 W/kg limit is unlikely to be exceeded under normal conditions of use of cellular and PCS hand-held phones.  The same can be said for cordless telephones used in the home.  Testing of hand-held phones is normally done under conditions of maximum power usage, thus providing an additional margin of safety, since most phone usage is not at maximum power.  Information on SAR levels for many phones is available electronically through the FCC"s Web site and database (see next question). (Back to Index)

"Hands-free" kits with ear pieces can be used with cell phones for convenience and comfort.  In addition, because the phone, which is the source of the RF emissions, will not be placed against the head, absorption of RF energy in the head will be reduced.  Therefore, it is true that use of an ear piece connected to a mobile phone will significantly reduce the rate of energy absorption (or "SAR") in the user"s head.  On the other hand, if the phone is mounted against the waist or other part of the body during use, then that part of the body will absorb RF energy.  Even so, mobile phones marketed in the U.S. are required to meet safety limit requirements regardless of whether they are used against the head or against the body.  So either configuration should result in compliance with the safety limit.  Note that hands-free devices using Bluetooth technology also include a wireless transmitter; however, the Bluetooth transmitter operates at a much lower power than the cell phone.

A number of devices have been marketed that claim to "shield" or otherwise reduce RF absorption in the body of the user.  Some of these devices incorporate shielded phone cases, while others involve nothing more than a metallic accessory attached to the phone.  Studies have shown that these devices generally do not work as advertised.  In fact, they may actually increase RF absorption in the head due to their potential to interfere with proper operation of the phone, thus forcing it to increase power to compensate.  The Federal Trade Commission has published a Consumer Alert regarding these shields on its website at: FTC Consumer Information -Cell Phone Radiation Scam. (Back to Index)

In urban and suburban areas, cellular and PCS service providers commonly use "sector" antennas for their base stations.  These antennas are rectangular panels, e.g., about 1 by 4 feet in size, typically mounted on a rooftop or other structure, but they are also mounted on towers or poles.  Panel antennas are usually arranged in three groups of three each.  It is common that not all antennas are used for the transmission of RF energy; some antennas may be receive-only.

At a given cell site, the total RF power that could be radiated by the antennas depends on the number of radio channels (transmitters) installed, the power of each transmitter, and the type of antenna.  While it is theoretically possible for cell sites to radiate at very high power levels, the maximum power radiated in any direction usually does not exceed 500 watts.

The RF emissions from cellular or PCS base station antennas are generally directed toward the horizon in a relatively narrow pattern in the vertical plane.  In the case of sector (panel) antennas, the pattern is fan-shaped, like a wedge cut from a pie.  As with all forms of electromagnetic energy, the power density from the antenna decreases rapidly as one moves away from the antenna.  Consequently, ground-level exposures are much less than exposures if one were at the same height and directly in front of the antenna.

Measurements made near typical cellular and PCS installations, especially those with tower-mounted antennas, have shown that ground-level power densities are hundreds to thousands of times less than the FCC"s limits for safe exposure.   This makes it extremely unlikely that a member of the general public could be exposed to RF levels in excess of FCC guidelines due solely to cellular or PCS base station antennas located on towers or monopoles.

Other antennas, such as those used for radio and television broadcast transmissions, use power levels that are generally much higher than those used for cellular and PCS antennas.  Therefore, in some cases there could be a potential for higher levels of exposure to persons on the ground.  However, all broadcast stations are required to demonstrate compliance with FCC safety guidelines, and ambient exposures to nearby persons from such stations are typically well below FCC safety limits. (Back to Index)

Radio and television broadcast stations transmit their signals via RF electromagnetic waves.  There are thousands of radio and TV stations on the air in the United States.  Broadcast stations transmit at various RF frequencies, depending on the channel, ranging from about 540 kHz for AM radio up to about 700 MHz for UHF television stations.  Frequencies for FM radio and VHF television lie in between these two extremes.  Broadcast transmitter power levels range from less then a watt to more than 100,000 watts.  Some of these transmission systems can be a significant source of RF energy in the local environment, so the FCC requires that broadcast stations submit evidence of compliance with FCC RF guidelines.

The amount of RF energy to which the public or workers might be exposed as a result of broadcast antennas depends on several factors, including the type of station, design characteristics of the antenna being used, power transmitted to the antenna, height of the antenna and distance from the antenna.  Note that the power normally quoted for FM and TV broadcast transmitters is the "effective radiated power" or ERP not the actual transmitter power mentioned above.  ERP is the transmitter power delivered to the antenna multiplied by the directivity or gain of the antenna.  Since high gain antennas direct most of the RF energy toward the horizon and not toward the ground, high ERP transmission systems such as used for UHF-TV broadcast tend to have less ground level field intensity near the station than FM radio broadcast systems with lower ERP and gain values.  Also, since energy at some frequencies is absorbed by the human body more readily than at other frequencies, both the frequency of the transmitted signal and its intensity is important.  Calculations can be performed to predict what field intensity levels would exist at various distances from an antenna.

Public access to broadcasting antennas is normally restricted so that individuals cannot be exposed to high-level fields that might exist near antennas.  Measurements made by the FCC, EPA and others have shown that ambient RF radiation levels in inhabited areas near broadcasting facilities are typically well below the exposure levels recommended by current standards and guidelines.  There have been a few situations around the country where RF levels in publicly accessible areas have been found to be higher than those recommended in applicable safety standards.  As they have been identified, the FCC has required that stations at those facilities promptly bring their combined operations into compliance with our guidelines.  Thus, despite the relatively high operating powers of many broadcast stations, such cases are unusual, and members of the general public are unlikely to be exposed to RF levels from broadcast towers that exceed FCC limits

There are essentially three types of RF transmitters associated with land-mobile systems:  base-station transmitters, vehicle-mounted transmitters, and hand-held transmitters.  The antennas and power levels used for these various transmitters are adapted for their specific purpose.  For example, a base-station antenna must radiate its signal to a relatively large area, and therefore, its transmitter generally has to use higher power levels than a vehicle-mounted or hand-held radio transmitter.  Although base-station antennas usually operate with higher power levels than other types of land-mobile antennas, they are normally inaccessible to the public since they must be mounted at significant heights above ground to provide for adequate signal coverage.  Also, many of these antennas transmit only intermittently.  For these reasons, base-station antennas are generally not of concern with regard to possible hazardous exposure of the public to RF radiation.  Studies at rooftop locations have indicated that high-powered paging antennas may increase the potential for exposure to workers or others with access to such sites, e.g., maintenance personnel.  This could be a concern especially when multiple transmitters are present.  In such cases, restriction of access or other mitigation actions may be necessary.

Transmitting power levels for vehicle-mounted land-mobile antennas are generally less than those used by base-sta