cath lab display screens made in china

A cathode-ray tube (CRT) is a vacuum tube containing one or more electron guns, which emit electron beams that are manipulated to display images on a phosphorescent screen.waveforms (oscilloscope), pictures (television set, computer monitor), radar targets, or other phenomena. A CRT on a television set is commonly called a picture tube. CRTs have also been used as memory devices, in which case the screen is not intended to be visible to an observer. The term

Since the mid-late 2000"s, CRTs have been superseded by flat-panel display technologies such as LCD, plasma display, and OLED displays which are cheaper to manufacture and run, as well as significantly lighter and less bulky. Flat-panel displays can also be made in very large sizes whereas 40 in (100 cm) to 45 in (110 cm)

Cathode rays were discovered by Julius Plücker and Johann Wilhelm Hittorf.cathode (negative electrode) which could cast shadows on the glowing wall of the tube, indicating the rays were traveling in straight lines. In 1890, Arthur Schuster demonstrated cathode rays could be deflected by electric fields, and William Crookes showed they could be deflected by magnetic fields. In 1897, J. J. Thomson succeeded in measuring the charge-mass-ratio of cathode rays, showing that they consisted of negatively charged particles smaller than atoms, the first "subatomic particles", which had already been named George Johnstone Stoney in 1891. The earliest version of the CRT was known as the "Braun tube", invented by the German physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1897.cold-cathode diode, a modification of the Crookes tube with a phosphor-coated screen. Braun was the first to conceive the use of a CRT as a display device.

The first cathode-ray tube to use a hot cathode was developed by John Bertrand Johnson (who gave his name to the term Johnson noise) and Harry Weiner Weinhart of Western Electric, and became a commercial product in 1922.

In 1926, Kenjiro Takayanagi demonstrated a CRT television receiver with a mechanical video camera that received images with a 40-line resolution.Philo Farnsworth created a television prototype.Vladimir K. Zworykin.: 84 RCA was granted a trademark for the term (for its cathode-ray tube) in 1932; it voluntarily released the term to the public domain in 1950.

In 1947, the cathode-ray tube amusement device, the earliest known interactive electronic game as well as the first to incorporate a cathode-ray tube screen, was created.

1968 marks the release of Sony Trinitron brand with the model KV-1310, which was based on Aperture Grille technology. It was acclaimed to have improved the output brightness. The Trinitron screen was identical with its upright cylindrical shape due to its unique triple cathode single gun construction.

In the mid-2000s, Canon and Sony presented the surface-conduction electron-emitter display and field-emission displays, respectively. They both were flat-panel displays that had one (SED) or several (FED) electron emitters per subpixel in place of electron guns. The electron emitters were placed on a sheet of glass and the electrons were accelerated to a nearby sheet of glass with phosphors using an anode voltage. The electrons were not focused, making each subpixel essentially a flood beam CRT. They were never put into mass production as LCD technology was significantly cheaper, eliminating the market for such displays.

Beginning in the late 90s to the early 2000s, CRTs began to be replaced with LCDs, starting first with computer monitors smaller than 15 inches in size,Hitachi in 2001,Flat-panel displays dropped in price and started significantly displacing cathode-ray tubes in the 2000s. LCD monitor sales began exceeding those of CRTs in 2003–2004

Despite being a mainstay of display technology for decades, CRT-based computer monitors and televisions are now virtually a dead technology. Demand for CRT screens dropped in the late 2000s.

Some industries still use CRTs because it is either too much effort, downtime, and/or cost to replace them, or there is no substitute available; a notable example is the airline industry. Planes such as the Boeing 747-400 and the Airbus A320 used CRT instruments in their glass cockpits instead of mechanical instruments.Lufthansa still use CRT technology, which also uses floppy disks for navigation updates.

A popular consumer usage of CRTs is for retrogaming. Some games are impossible to play without CRT display hardware, and some games play better. Reasons for this include:

The design of the high voltage power supply in a product using a CRT has an influence in the amount of x-rays emitted by the CRT. The amount of emitted x-rays increases with both higher voltages and currents. If the product such as a TV set uses an unregulated high voltage power supply, meaning that anode and focus voltage go down with increasing electron current when displaying a bright image, the amount of emitted x-rays is as its highest when the CRT is displaying a moderately bright images, since when displaying dark or bright images, the higher anode voltage counteracts the lower electron beam current and vice versa respectively. The high voltage regulator and rectifier vacuum tubes in some old CRT TV sets may also emit x-rays.

The electron gun emits the electrons that ultimately hit the phosphors on the screen of the CRT. The electron gun contains a heater, which heats a cathode, which generates electrons that, using grids, are focused and ultimately accelerated into the screen of the CRT. The acceleration occurs in conjunction with the inner aluminum or aquadag coating of the CRT. The electron gun is positioned so that it aims at the center of the screen.

It has a hot cathode that is heated by a tungsten filament heating element; the heater may draw 0.5 to 2 A of current depending on the CRT. The voltage applied to the heater can affect the life of the CRT.

There are several shortcircuits that can occur in a CRT electron gun. One is a heater-to-cathode short, that causes the cathode to permanently emit electrons which may cause an image with a bright red, green or blue tint with retrace lines, depending on the cathode (s) affected. Alternatively, the cathode may short to the control grid, possibly causing similar effects, or, the control grid and screen grid (G2)sputtering.

Since it is a hot cathode, it is prone to cathode poisoning, which is the formation of a positive ion layer that prevents the cathode from emitting electrons, reducing image brightness significantly or completely and causing focus and intensity to be affected by the frequency of the video signal preventing detailed images from being displayed by the CRT. The positive ions come from leftover air molecules inside the CRT or from the cathode itself

The amount of electrons generated by the cathodes is related to their surface area. A cathode with more surface area creates more electrons, in a larger electron cloud, which makes focusing the electron cloud into an electron beam more difficult.

During retracing of the electron beam, the preamplifier that feeds the video amplifier is disabled and the video amplifier is biased to a voltage higher than the cutoff voltage to prevent retrace lines from showing, or G1 can have a large negative voltage applied to it to prevent electrons from getting out of the cathode.Vertical blanking interval and Horizontal blanking interval.) Incorrect biasing can lead to visible retrace lines on one or more colors, creating retrace lines that are tinted or white (for example, tinted red if the red color is affected, tinted magenta if the red and blue colors are affected, and white if all colors are affected).

The electron guns in color CRTs are driven by a video amplifier which takes a signal per color channel and amplifies it to 40-170v per channel, to be fed into the electron gun"s cathodes;

Burn-in is when images are physically "burned" into the screen of the CRT; this occurs due to degradation of the phosphors due to prolonged electron bombardment of the phosphors, and happens when a fixed image or logo is left for too long on the screen, causing it to appear as a "ghost" image or, in severe cases, also when the CRT is off. To counter this, screensavers were used in computers to minimize burn-in.

Also known as rejuvenation, the goal is to temporarily restore the brightness of a worn CRT. This is often done by carefully increasing the voltage on the cathode heater and the current and voltage on the control grids of the electron gun either manually

Various phosphors are available depending upon the needs of the measurement or display application. The brightness, color, and persistence of the illumination depends upon the type of phosphor used on the CRT screen. Phosphors are available with persistences ranging from less than one microsecond to several seconds.

Doming is a phenomenon found on some CRT televisions in which parts of the shadow mask become heated. In televisions that exhibit this behavior, it tends to occur in high-contrast scenes in which there is a largely dark scene with one or more localized bright spots. As the electron beam hits the shadow mask in these areas it heats unevenly. The shadow mask warps due to the heat differences, which causes the electron gun to hit the wrong colored phosphors and incorrect colors to be displayed in the affected area.

Aperture grille screens are brighter since they allow more electrons through, but they require support wires. They are also more resistant to warping.

On CRTs, refresh rate depends on resolution, both of which are ultimately limited by the maximum horizontal scanning frequency of the CRT. Motion blur also depends on the decay time of the phosphors. Phosphors that decay too slowly for a given refresh rate may cause smearing or motion blur on the image. In practice, CRTs are limited to a refresh rate of 160 Hz.quantum dot LCDs (QLEDs) are available in high refresh rates (up to 144 Hz)

CRT monitors can still outperform LCD and OLED monitors in input lag, as there is no signal processing between the CRT and the display connector of the monitor, since CRT monitors often use VGA which provides an analog signal that can be fed to a CRT directly. Video cards designed for use with CRTs may have a RAMDAC to generate the analog signals needed by the CRT.multisyncing.

Trinitron CRTs were different from other color CRTs in that they had a single electron gun with three cathodes, an aperture grille which lets more electrons through, increasing image brightness (since the aperture grille does not block as many electrons), and a vertically cylindrical screen, rather than a curved screen.

The convergence signal may instead be a sawtooth signal with a slight sine wave appearance, the sine wave part is created using a capacitor in series with each deflection coil. In this case, the convergence signal is used to drive the deflection coils. The sine wave part of the signal causes the electron beam to move more slowly near the edges of the screen. The capacitors used to create the convergence signal are known as the s-capacitors. This type of convergence is necessary due to the high deflection angles and flat screens of many CRT computer monitors. The value of the s-capacitors must be chosen based on the scan rate of the CRT, so multi-syncing monitors must have different sets of s-capacitors, one for each refresh rate.

Dynamic color convergence and purity are one of the main reasons why until late in their history, CRTs were long-necked (deep) and had biaxially curved faces; these geometric design characteristics are necessary for intrinsic passive dynamic color convergence and purity. Only starting around the 1990s did sophisticated active dynamic convergence compensation circuits become available that made short-necked and flat-faced CRTs workable. These active compensation circuits use the deflection yoke to finely adjust beam deflection according to the beam target location. The same techniques (and major circuit components) also make possible the adjustment of display image rotation, skew, and other complex raster geometry parameters through electronics under user control.

Color CRT displays in television sets and computer monitors often have a built-in degaussing (demagnetizing) coil mounted around the perimeter of the CRT face. Upon power-up of the CRT display, the degaussing circuit produces a brief, alternating current through the coil which fades to zero over a few seconds, producing a decaying alternating magnetic field from the coil. This degaussing field is strong enough to remove shadow mask magnetization in most cases, maintaining color purity.deform (bend) the shadow mask, causing a permanent color distortion on the display which looks very similar to a magnetization effect.

Dot pitch defines the maximum resolution of the display, assuming delta-gun CRTs. In these, as the scanned resolution approaches the dot pitch resolution, moiré appears, as the detail being displayed is finer than what the shadow mask can render.

Projector CRTs were available with electrostatic and electromagnetic focusing, the latter being more expensive. Electrostatic focusing used electronics to focus the electron beam, together with focusing magnets around the neck of the CRT for fine focusing adjustments. This type of focusing degraded over time. Electromagnetic focusing was introduced in the early 1990s and included an electromagnetic focusing coil in addition to the already existing focusing magnets. Electromagnetic focusing was much more stable over the lifetime of the CRT, retaining 95% of its sharpness by the end of life of the CRT.

Flat CRTs are those with a flat screen. Despite having a flat screen, they may not be completely flat, especially on the inside, instead having a greatly increased curvature. A notable exception is the LG Flatron (made by LG.Philips Displays, later LP Displays) which is truly flat on the outside and inside, but has a bonded glass pane on the screen with a tensioned rim band to provide implosion protection. Such completely flat CRTs were first introduced by Zenith in 1986, and used

flat tensioned shadow masks, where the shadow mask is held under tension, providing increased resistance to blooming.TV80, and in many Sony Watchmans were flat in that they were not deep and their front screens were flat, but their electron guns were put to a side of the screen.

Radar CRTs such as the 7JP4 had a circular screen and scanned the beam from the center outwards. The screen often had two colors, often a bright short persistence color that only appeared as the beam scanned the display and a long persistence phosphor afterglow. When the beam strikes the phosphor, the phosphor brightly illuminates, and when the beam leaves, the dimmer long persistence afterglow would remain lit where the beam struck the phosphor, alongside the radar targets that were "written" by the beam, until the beam re-struck the phosphor.

When displaying fast one-shot events, the electron beam must deflect very quickly, with few electrons impinging on the screen, leading to a faint or invisible image on the display. Oscilloscope CRTs designed for very fast signals can give a brighter display by passing the electron beam through a micro-channel plate just before it reaches the screen. Through the phenomenon of secondary emission, this plate multiplies the number of electrons reaching the phosphor screen, giving a significant improvement in writing rate (brightness) and improved sensitivity and spot size as well.

Most oscilloscopes have a graticule as part of the visual display, to facilitate measurements. The graticule may be permanently marked inside the face of the CRT, or it may be a transparent external plate made of glass or acrylic plastic. An internal graticule eliminates parallax error, but cannot be changed to accommodate different types of measurements.

Where a single brief event is monitored by an oscilloscope, such an event will be displayed by a conventional tube only while it actually occurs. The use of a long persistence phosphor may allow the image to be observed after the event, but only for a few seconds at best. This limitation can be overcome by the use of a direct view storage cathode-ray tube (storage tube). A storage tube will continue to display the event after it has occurred until such time as it is erased. A storage tube is similar to a conventional tube except that it is equipped with a metal grid coated with a dielectric layer located immediately behind the phosphor screen. An externally applied voltage to the mesh initially ensures that the whole mesh is at a constant potential. This mesh is constantly exposed to a low velocity electron beam from a "flood gun" which operates independently of the main gun. This flood gun is not deflected like the main gun but constantly "illuminates" the whole of the storage mesh. The initial charge on the storage mesh is such as to repel the electrons from the flood gun which are prevented from striking the phosphor screen.

When the main electron gun writes an image to the screen, the energy in the main beam is sufficient to create a "potential relief" on the storage mesh. The areas where this relief is created no longer repel the electrons from the flood gun which now pass through the mesh and illuminate the phosphor screen. Consequently, the image that was briefly traced out by the main gun continues to be displayed after it has occurred. The image can be "erased" by resupplying the external voltage to the mesh restoring its constant potential. The time for which the image can be displayed was limited because, in practice, the flood gun slowly neutralises the charge on the storage mesh. One way of allowing the image to be retained for longer is temporarily to turn off the flood gun. It is then possible for the image to be retained for several days. The majority of storage tubes allow for a lower voltage to be applied to the storage mesh which slowly restores the initial charge state. By varying this voltage a variable persistence is obtained. Turning off the flood gun and the voltage supply to the storage mesh allows such a tube to operate as a conventional oscilloscope tube.

The Williams tube or Williams-Kilburn tube was a cathode-ray tube used to electronically store binary data. It was used in computers of the 1940s as a random-access digital storage device. In contrast to other CRTs in this article, the Williams tube was not a display device, and in fact could not be viewed since a metal plate covered its screen.

Some displays for early computers (those that needed to display more text than was practical using vectors, or that required high speed for photographic output) used Charactron CRTs. These incorporate a perforated metal character mask (stencil), which shapes a wide electron beam to form a character on the screen. The system selects a character on the mask using one set of deflection circuits, but that causes the extruded beam to be aimed off-axis, so a second set of deflection plates has to re-aim the beam so it is headed toward the center of the screen. A third set of plates places the character wherever required. The beam is unblanked (turned on) briefly to draw the character at that position. Graphics could be drawn by selecting the position on the mask corresponding to the code for a space (in practice, they were simply not drawn), which had a small round hole in the center; this effectively disabled the character mask, and the system reverted to regular vector behavior. Charactrons had exceptionally long necks, because of the need for three deflection systems.

Nimo was the trademark of a family of small specialised CRTs manufactured by Industrial Electronic Engineers. These had 10 electron guns which produced electron beams in the form of digits in a manner similar to that of the charactron. The tubes were either simple single-digit displays or more complex 4- or 6- digit displays produced by means of a suitable magnetic deflection system. Having little of the complexities of a standard CRT, the tube required a relatively simple driving circuit, and as the image was projected on the glass face, it provided a much wider viewing angle than competitive types (e.g., nixie tubes).

Flood-beam CRTs are small tubes that are arranged as pixels for large video walls like Jumbotrons. The first screen using this technology (called Diamond Vision by Mitsubishi Electric) was introduced by Mitsubishi Electric for the 1980 Major League Baseball All-Star Game. It differs from a normal CRT in that the electron gun within does not produce a focused controllable beam. Instead, electrons are sprayed in a wide cone across the entire front of the phosphor screen, basically making each unit act as a single light bulb.light-emitting diode displays. Unfocused and undeflected CRTs were used as grid-controlled stroboscope lamps since 1958.Electron-stimulated luminescence (ESL) lamps, which use the same operating principle, were released in 2011.

In the late 1990s and early 2000s Philips Research Laboratories experimented with a type of thin CRT known as the Zeus display, which contained CRT-like functionality in a flat-panel display.

Some CRT manufacturers, both LG.Philips Displays (later LP Displays) and Samsung SDI, innovated CRT technology by creating a slimmer tube. Slimmer CRT had the trade names Superslim,

At low refresh rates (60 Hz and below), the periodic scanning of the display may produce a flicker that some people perceive more easily than others, especially when viewed with peripheral vision. Flicker is commonly associated with CRT as most televisions run at 50 Hz (PAL) or 60 Hz (NTSC), although there are some 100 Hz PAL televisions that are flicker-free. Typically only low-end monitors run at such low frequencies, with most computer monitors supporting at least 75 Hz and high-end monitors capable of 100 Hz or more to eliminate any perception of flicker.sonar or radar may have long persistence phosphor and are thus flicker free. If the persistence is too long on a video display, moving images will be blurred.

This problem does not occur on 100/120 Hz TVs and on non-CGA (Color Graphics Adapter) computer displays, because they use much higher horizontal scanning frequencies that produce sound which is inaudible to humans (22 kHz to over 100 kHz).

High vacuum inside glass-walled cathode-ray tubes permits electron beams to fly freely—without colliding into molecules of air or other gas. If the glass is damaged, atmospheric pressure can collapse the vacuum tube into dangerous fragments which accelerate inward and then spray at high speed in all directions. Although modern cathode-ray tubes used in televisions and computer displays have epoxy-bonded face-plates or other measures to prevent shattering of the envelope, CRTs must be handled carefully to avoid personal injury.

Under some circumstances, the signal radiated from the electron guns, scanning circuitry, and associated wiring of a CRT can be captured remotely and used to reconstruct what is shown on the CRT using a process called Van Eck phreaking.TEMPEST shielding can mitigate this effect. Such radiation of a potentially exploitable signal, however, occurs also with other display technologies

As electronic waste, CRTs are considered one of the hardest types to recycle.phosphors, both of which are necessary for the display. There are several companies in the United States that charge a small fee to collect CRTs, then subsidize their labor by selling the harvested copper, wire, and printed circuit boards. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) includes discarded CRT monitors in its category of "hazardous household waste"

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Minimally invasive, transcatheter therapeutic interventions for structural heart disease have evolved over the past several decades as appealing alternatives to open-chest surgery. Smaller incisions, shorter hospital stays and quicker recovery are outcomes that are ubiquitous to all approved transcatheter procedures, in comparison to traditional surgery. X-ray fluoroscopy (XRF) is the most commonly used imaging modality to guide transcatheter procedures. XRF offers certain advantages. Interventionalists have close familiarity with XRF systems. These systems are also widely available in centers with cardiac catheterization laboratories. XRF can visualize high X-ray attenuating devices such as radio-opaque catheters and metallic stents. However, XRF has certain disadvantages. For example, soft tissues such as myocardium, and valves are visualized poorly. Chambers and vessels are only transiently visible when filled with boluses of iodinated contrast, which can be nephrotoxic in susceptible individuals. Conventional X-ray also images using the principle of “projection” imaging, making it difficult to judge three dimensional (3D) perspective. Finally, over-reliance on XRF as the sole imaging modality exposes the patient and in-room personnel to the harmful effects of ionizing radiation. Wholly magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) (1-4) and ultrasound guided (US) (5,6) cardiovascular interventions have been tested in animal models and clinical studies as ionizing radiation-free alternatives to XRF. However, wide adoption of these methods has been prevented in large part by the lack of visually conspicuous devices that still maintain high mechanical performance.

XRF’s limitations have prompted industry and investigators to improve upon the cardiac cath-lab imaging ecosystem using existing commercial modalities and hardware. The conventional cath-lab commonly offers a pre-acquired MRI or computed tomography (CT) road map, real-time US, electromagnetic (EM) navigation and real-time XRF, all separately displayed on in-room monitors. These separated displays require the operator to cognitively integrate information from these images or imaging streams while they steer devices. A more sensible alternative is to co-register pre-acquired MRI, CT, 3D ultrasound, EM with XRF to provide the interventionalist with well defined, 3D anatomic perspectives so that they can steer devices toward tissues they wish to treat and away from tissues they wish to avoid (Figure 1). Other goals would include reducing the need for ionizing radiation and nephrotoxic contrast and to improve efficiency by reducing the procedure time. Finally, enhanced imaging may even permit novel catheter-based treatments for certain structural heart disorders for which there are no surgical or medical alternatives.

Goreczny et al. (7) report their single center initial experience using VesselNavigator (Phillips Healthcare, Amsterdam, The Netherlands) to co-register and overlay pre-acquired CT/MRI roadmaps onto live XRF using internal anatomic markers. Other commercially available products also perform 3D to 2D XRF fusion such as Siemens Healthcare (Syngo Fusion), General Electric (Innova Vision), and Toshiba (Smart Fusion). In the electrophysiology lab, CARTO sound and CARTO merge utilize EM-3D fusion to guide many interventions. Goreczny et al. performed 2D-3D co-registration for a heterogeneous mixture of pediatric interventions. Image based co-registration was performed using bony structures, calcifications, indwelling devices, or small volume contrast injections. When these experienced interventionalists judged that the co-registration was failing, re-registration was performed during the procedure. The registration was considered subjectively “accurate” in 89% of patients and required intraprocedural adjustment in 22% of patients. There was one patient where re-registration failed due to significant distortion of a vessel due to a large sheath. This paper makes an important contribution to a field that has extensive technical development literature, but is sorely lacking in real-world clinical experience.

Several investigators have made critical advances in improving the cardiac cath-lab ecosystem. Co-registration and display of real-time US, EM, XRF plus static MRI, CT, 3D US road maps (and combinations thereof) have been described (Table 1). Methods for integration of respiratory and cardiac motion correction for MRI roadmaps have been studied in animal models (22). In addition, novel low radiation dose XRF methods for real-time 3D device tracking (23) and real-time 3D ultrasound to provide both anatomic and physiologic information (5) during interventional procedures are future directions of interest. We are not limited to fusion of only two modalities. There are examples of successful fusion of MRI, 3D US, and XRF for guidance of transendocardial injections in swine models (16). We hope one day to have a better interventional imaging eco-system where interventionalists are presented with sensible displays that reliably show devices and their 3D relationship to anatomic structures, where radiation and contrast dose is kept to a minimum and where physiologic consequences of the intervention is rapidly apparent.

Imaging modalityPediatricAdultCT-XRFAortic coarctation, pulmonary artery stenting (9); transcatheter pulmonary valve insertion, venous-venous collateral closure (7)Aortic aneurysm repair (10); transcatheter aortic valve replacement, paravalvular leak closure; pulmonary vein stenting (11)

3DUS-XRFASD closure, Fontan fenestration closure, and transcatheter tricuspid valve replacement (14)Mitral valve repair, left atrial appendage, ASD and paravalvular leak closure (15)

4K Ultra HD Large-screen Image Display Angiography Machine with its novel floor-mounted 7-axis linkage gantry design, it"s easy to project different surgical parts of patient and provide the ultimate HD surgical images for interventional surgery.

Image display function: acquisition time, date display, image freezing, grayscale inversion, image annotation, left/right identification, text annotation, anatomical background

We develop, design, manufacture, and sell displays where it is necessary for the interface that deliver a lot of information at an instant and deliver it to the global market. We create interactive spaces that go beyond the expected, elevate everyday lives, and move people"s hearts. From bases in major cities in Asia, Europe, and North America, we build strong customer relationships by developing products that respond to market needs.

Today, Lepu Medical has grown into a global leading group company in the fields of cardiovascular interventions, structural heart diseases, cardiac rhythm management, anesthesia and critical care, in vitro diagnostics and general surgery with products including coronary stents, dilatation balloon catheters, interventional accessories, occlusion devices, mechanical heart valves, electrophysiology catheters, pacemakers, in vitro diagnostic equipment and biomarkers, DSA systems and surgical staplers. In 2009, this medical technology company, Lepu Medical, successfully went public and listed on Chinext Shenzhen StockExchange Market ( stock code: 300003).

A liquid-crystal display (LCD) is a flat-panel display or other electronically modulated optical device that uses the light-modulating properties of liquid crystals combined with polarizers. Liquid crystals do not emit light directlybacklight or reflector to produce images in color or monochrome.seven-segment displays, as in a digital clock, are all good examples of devices with these displays. They use the same basic technology, except that arbitrary images are made from a matrix of small pixels, while other displays have larger elements. LCDs can either be normally on (positive) or off (negative), depending on the polarizer arrangement. For example, a character positive LCD with a backlight will have black lettering on a background that is the color of the backlight, and a character negative LCD will have a black background with the letters being of the same color as the backlight. Optical filters are added to white on blue LCDs to give them their characteristic appearance.

LCDs are used in a wide range of applications, including LCD televisions, computer monitors, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays, and indoor and outdoor signage. Small LCD screens are common in LCD projectors and portable consumer devices such as digital cameras, watches, digital clocks, calculators, and mobile telephones, including smartphones. LCD screens are also used on consumer electronics products such as DVD players, video game devices and clocks. LCD screens have replaced heavy, bulky cathode-ray tube (CRT) displays in nearly all applications. LCD screens are available in a wider range of screen sizes than CRT and plasma displays, with LCD screens available in sizes ranging from tiny digital watches to very large television receivers. LCDs are slowly being replaced by OLEDs, which can be easily made into different shapes, and have a lower response time, wider color gamut, virtually infinite color contrast and viewing angles, lower weight for a given display size and a slimmer profile (because OLEDs use a single glass or plastic panel whereas LCDs use two glass panels; the thickness of the panels increases with size but the increase is more noticeable on LCDs) and potentially lower power consumption (as the display is only "on" where needed and there is no backlight). OLEDs, however, are more expensive for a given display size due to the very expensive electroluminescent materials or phosphors that they use. Also due to the use of phosphors, OLEDs suffer from screen burn-in and there is currently no way to recycle OLED displays, whereas LCD panels can be recycled, although the technology required to recycle LCDs is not yet widespread. Attempts to maintain the competitiveness of LCDs are quantum dot displays, marketed as SUHD, QLED or Triluminos, which are displays with blue LED backlighting and a Quantum-dot enhancement film (QDEF) that converts part of the blue light into red and green, offering similar performance to an OLED display at a lower price, but the quantum dot layer that gives these displays their characteristics can not yet be recycled.

Since LCD screens do not use phosphors, they rarely suffer image burn-in when a static image is displayed on a screen for a long time, e.g., the table frame for an airline flight schedule on an indoor sign. LCDs are, however, susceptible to image persistence.battery-powered electronic equipment more efficiently than a CRT can be. By 2008, annual sales of televisions with LCD screens exceeded sales of CRT units worldwide, and the CRT became obsolete for most purposes.

The optical effect of a TN device in the voltage-on state is far less dependent on variations in the device thickness than that in the voltage-off state. Because of this, TN displays with low information content and no backlighting are usually operated between crossed polarizers such that they appear bright with no voltage (the eye is much more sensitive to variations in the dark state than the bright state). As most of 2010-era LCDs are used in television sets, monitors and smartphones, they have high-resolution matrix arrays of pixels to display arbitrary images using backlighting with a dark background. When no image is displayed, different arrangements are used. For this purpose, TN LCDs are operated between parallel polarizers, whereas IPS LCDs feature crossed polarizers. In many applications IPS LCDs have replaced TN LCDs, particularly in smartphones. Both the liquid crystal material and the alignment layer material contain ionic compounds. If an electric field of one particular polarity is applied for a long period of time, this ionic material is attracted to the surfaces and degrades the device performance. This is avoided either by applying an alternating current or by reversing the polarity of the electric field as the device is addressed (the response of the liquid crystal layer is identical, regardless of the polarity of the applied field).

Displays for a small number of individual digits or fixed symbols (as in digital watches and pocket calculators) can be implemented with independent electrodes for each segment.alphanumeric or variable graphics displays are usually implemented with pixels arranged as a matrix consisting of electrically connected rows on one side of the LC layer and columns on the other side, which makes it possible to address each pixel at the intersections. The general method of matrix addressing consists of sequentially addressing one side of the matrix, for example by selectin